tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4832098615906928352023-11-16T09:44:44.553-08:00ChemistryAn Open Source Project to help Students to exel in Academics.joodlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14170364647745018340noreply@blogger.comBlogger17125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-483209861590692835.post-48653688953962864992017-10-17T11:12:00.003-07:002017-10-17T11:12:50.366-07:00Solid State<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-outline-level: 2; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Classification of solids:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Crystalline and Amorphous
solids:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="background: white; border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-alt: .25pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .75pt; mso-border-right-alt: .25pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .75pt; mso-cellspacing: 0cm; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 100%px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 8.02%;" valign="top" width="8%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">S.No.</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 39.46%;" valign="top" width="39%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Crystalline
Solids</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 52.52%;" valign="top" width="52%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Amorphous
solids</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 8.02%;" valign="top" width="8%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.75pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">1</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 39.46%;" valign="top" width="39%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Regular
internal arrangement of particles</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 52.52%;" valign="top" width="52%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">irregular
internal arrangement of particles</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 8.02%;" valign="top" width="8%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 39.46%;" valign="top" width="39%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Sharp
melting point</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 52.52%;" valign="top" width="52%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Melt
over a rage of temperature</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 8.02%;" valign="top" width="8%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">3</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 39.46%;" valign="top" width="39%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Regarded
as true solids</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 52.52%;" valign="top" width="52%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Regarded
as super cooled liquids or pseudo solids</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 8.02%;" valign="top" width="8%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">4</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 39.46%;" valign="top" width="39%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Undergo
regular cut <b> </b></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 52.52%;" valign="top" width="52%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Undergo
irregular cut.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 8.02%;" valign="top" width="8%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">5</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 39.46%;" valign="top" width="39%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Anisotropic
in nature</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 52.52%;" valign="top" width="52%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Isotropic
in nature</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Based on binding
forces:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="background: white; border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-alt: .25pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .75pt; mso-border-right-alt: .25pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .75pt; mso-cellspacing: 0cm; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 100%px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 24.92%;" valign="top" width="24%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Crystal Classification </span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 14.34%;" valign="top" width="14%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Unit
Particles </span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 20.62%;" valign="top" width="20%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Binding
Forces </span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 27.58%;" valign="top" width="27%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Properties </span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 12.56%;" valign="top" width="12%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Examples </span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 24.92%;" valign="top" width="24%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Atomic</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 14.34%;" valign="top" width="14%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Atoms</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 20.62%;" valign="top" width="20%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">London dispersion forces</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 27.58%;" valign="top" width="27%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Soft, very low melting, poor thermal
and electrical conductors</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 12.56%;" valign="top" width="12%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Noble gases</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 24.92%;" valign="top" width="24%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Molecular</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 14.34%;" valign="top" width="14%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Polar or<br />
non – polar molecules</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 20.62%;" valign="top" width="20%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Vander Waal’s forces (London
dispersion, dipole – dipole forces hydrogen bonds)</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 27.58%;" valign="top" width="27%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Fairly soft, low to moderately high
melting points, poor thermal and electrical conductors</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 12.56%;" valign="top" width="12%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Dry ice (solid, methane</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 24.92%;" valign="top" width="24%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Ionic</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 14.34%;" valign="top" width="14%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Positive and negative ions</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 20.62%;" valign="top" width="20%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Ionic bonds</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 27.58%;" valign="top" width="27%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Hard and brittle, high melting
points, high heats of fusion, poor thermal and electrical conductors</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 12.56%;" valign="top" width="12%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">NaCl, ZnS</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 24.92%;" valign="top" width="24%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Covalent</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 14.34%;" valign="top" width="14%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Atoms that are connected in covalent
bond network</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 20.62%;" valign="top" width="20%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Covalent bonds</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 27.58%;" valign="top" width="27%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Very hard, very high melting points,
poor thermal and electrical conductors</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 12.56%;" valign="top" width="12%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Diamond, quartz, silicon</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 24.92%;" valign="top" width="24%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Metallic Solids</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 14.34%;" valign="top" width="14%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Cations in electron cloud</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 20.62%;" valign="top" width="20%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Metallic bonds</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 27.58%;" valign="top" width="27%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Soft to very hard, low to very high
melting points, excellent thermal and electrical conductors, malleable and
ductile</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 12.56%;" valign="top" width="12%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">All metallic elements, for example,
Cu, Fe, Zn</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-outline-level: 2; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Bragg Equation: </span></b><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 14pt; padding: 0cm;">
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">n</span></i><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">λ = 2<i>d</i>sinθ,</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Where</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">d= distance between
the planes</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">n = order of
refraction</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">θ= angel of
refraction</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">λ = wavelength</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-outline-level: 2; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Crystal Systems:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Total number of
crystal systems: 7<b> </b></span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Total number of
Bravais Lattices: 14</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="background: white; border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-alt: .25pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .75pt; mso-border-right-alt: .25pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .75pt; mso-cellspacing: 0cm; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 100%px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 23.78%;" valign="top" width="23%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Crystal Systems</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 21.3%;" valign="top" width="21%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Bravais
Lattices </span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 16.14%;" valign="top" width="16%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Intercepts </span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 20.8%;" valign="top" width="20%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Crystal
angle </span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 18.0%;" valign="top" width="18%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Example</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 23.78%;" valign="top" width="23%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">C<span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">ubic<b> </b></span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 21.3%;" valign="top" width="21%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Primitive, Face Centered, Body
Centered<b> </b></span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 16.14%;" valign="top" width="16%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">a = b = c</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 20.8%;" valign="top" width="20%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">a = b = g = 90</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">o</span></sup><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> </span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 18.0%;" valign="top" width="18%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Pb,Hg,Ag,Au Diamond, NaCl, ZnS<b> </b></span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 23.78%;" valign="top" width="23%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Orthorhombic</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 21.3%;" valign="top" width="21%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Primitive, Face Centered, Body
Centered, End Centered</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 16.14%;" valign="top" width="16%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">a ≠ b ≠ c</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 20.8%;" valign="top" width="20%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">a = b = g = 90</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">o</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 18.0%;" valign="top" width="18%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">KNO</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">,
K</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">SO</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">4</span></sub><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 23.78%;" valign="top" width="23%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Tetragonal</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 21.3%;" valign="top" width="21%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Primitive, Body Centered</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 16.14%;" valign="top" width="16%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">a = b ≠ c</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 20.8%;" valign="top" width="20%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">a = b = g = 90</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">o</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 18.0%;" valign="top" width="18%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">TiO</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">,SnO</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></sub><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 23.78%;" valign="top" width="23%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Monoclinic</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 21.3%;" valign="top" width="21%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Primitive, End Centered</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 16.14%;" valign="top" width="16%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">a ≠ b ≠ c</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 20.8%;" valign="top" width="20%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">a = g = 90</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">o</span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">,
b≠ 90</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">o</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 18.0%;" valign="top" width="18%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">CaSO</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">4</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">,2H</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">O</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 23.78%;" valign="top" width="23%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Triclinic</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 21.3%;" valign="top" width="21%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Primitive</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 16.14%;" valign="top" width="16%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">a ≠ b ≠ c</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 20.8%;" valign="top" width="20%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">a≠b≠g≠90</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">0</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 18.0%;" valign="top" width="18%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">K</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Cr</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">O</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">7</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">,
CaSO</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">4</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">5H</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">O</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 23.78%;" valign="top" width="23%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Hexagonal</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 21.3%;" valign="top" width="21%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Primitive</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 16.14%;" valign="top" width="16%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">a = b ≠ c</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 20.8%;" valign="top" width="20%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">a = b = 90</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">0</span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">,
g = 120</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">o</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 18.0%;" valign="top" width="18%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Mg, SiO</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">,
Zn, Cd</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 7; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 23.78%;" valign="top" width="23%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Rhombohedra</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 21.3%;" valign="top" width="21%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Primitive</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 16.14%;" valign="top" width="16%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">a = b = c</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 20.8%;" valign="top" width="20%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">a = g = 90</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">o</span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">,
b≠ 90</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">o</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 18.0%;" valign="top" width="18%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">As, Sb, Bi, CaCO</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">3</span></sub><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> </span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-outline-level: 2; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Number of atoms in unit cells.</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Primitive cubic
unit cell:</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Number of atoms at
corners = 8×1/8 =1</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Number of atoms in
faces = 0</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Number of atoms at
body-centre: =0</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Total number of
atoms = 1</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> Body-centred
cubic unit cell:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Number of atoms at corners = 8×1/8 =1</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Number of atoms in
faces = 0</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Number of atoms at
body-centre: =1</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Total number of
atoms = 2</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Face-centred cubic
or cubic-close packed unit cell: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Number of atoms at corners = 8×1/8 =1</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Number of atoms in
faces = 6×1/2 = 3</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Number of atoms at
body-centre: = 0</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Total number of
atoms = 4</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-outline-level: 2; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Packing Efficiency</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Packing Efficiency
= (Volume occupied by all the atoms present in unit cell / Total volume of unit
cell)×100</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="background: white; border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-alt: .25pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .75pt; mso-border-right-alt: .25pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .75pt; mso-cellspacing: 0cm; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 100%px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 24.36%;" valign="top" width="24%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Close structure</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 25.16%;" valign="top" width="25%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Number of atoms
per unit cell ‘<i>z</i>’.</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 25.16%;" valign="top" width="25%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Relation between
edge length ‘<i>a</i>’ and radius of atom ‘<i>r</i>’</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 25.32%;" valign="top" width="25%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Packing
Efficiency</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 24.36%;" valign="top" width="24%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<i><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">hcp</span></i><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> and <i>ccp </i>or <i>fcc</i></span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 25.16%;" valign="top" width="25%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">4</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 25.16%;" valign="top" width="25%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">r = a/(2√2)</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 25.32%;" valign="top" width="25%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">74%</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 24.36%;" valign="top" width="24%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<i><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">bcc</span></i><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 25.16%;" valign="top" width="25%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 25.16%;" valign="top" width="25%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">r = (√3/4)a</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 25.32%;" valign="top" width="25%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">68%</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 24.36%;" valign="top" width="24%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Simple cubic lattice</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 25.16%;" valign="top" width="25%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">1</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 25.16%;" valign="top" width="25%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">r = a/2</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 25.32%;" valign="top" width="25%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">52.4%</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-outline-level: 2; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Density of crystal lattice:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">r = (Number of
atoms per unit cell × Mass number)/(Volume of unit cell × N</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">A</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-outline-level: 2; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Octahedral and Tetrahedral Voids: </span></b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 16pt; padding: 0cm;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Number of
octahedral voids = Number of effective atoms present in unit cell</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Number of
tetrahedral voids = 2×Number of effective atoms present in unit cell</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">So, Number of
tetrahedral voids = 2× Number of octahedral voids.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-outline-level: 2; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Coordination numbers and radius ratio:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="background: white; border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-alt: .25pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .75pt; mso-border-right-alt: .25pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .75pt; mso-cellspacing: 0cm; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 100%px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 19.88%;" valign="top" width="19%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Coordination
numbers</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 23.12%;" valign="top" width="23%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Geometry</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 28.42%;" valign="top" width="28%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Radius ratio (x)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 28.58%;" valign="top" width="28%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Example</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 19.88%;" valign="top" width="19%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 23.12%;" valign="top" width="23%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Linear</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 28.42%;" valign="top" width="28%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">x < 0.155</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 28.58%;" valign="top" width="28%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">BeF</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></sub><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 19.88%;" valign="top" width="19%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">3</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 23.12%;" valign="top" width="23%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
<span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">Planar Triangle</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 28.42%;" valign="top" width="28%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">0.155 ≤ x < 0.225</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 28.58%;" valign="top" width="28%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">AlCl</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">3</span></sub><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 19.88%;" valign="top" width="19%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">4</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 23.12%;" valign="top" width="23%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
<span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">Tetrahedron</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 28.42%;" valign="top" width="28%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">0.225 ≤ x < 0.414</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 28.58%;" valign="top" width="28%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">ZnS</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 19.88%;" valign="top" width="19%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">4</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 23.12%;" valign="top" width="23%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
<span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">Square planar</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 28.42%;" valign="top" width="28%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">0.414 ≤ x < 0.732</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 28.58%;" valign="top" width="28%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">PtCl</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">4</span></sub><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2-</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 19.88%;" valign="top" width="19%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">6</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
<span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">Octahedron</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">0.414 ≤ x < 0.732</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">NaCl</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">8</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Body centered cubic</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">0.732 ≤ x < 0.999</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">CsCl</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</tbody></table>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Classification of Ionic
Structures: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Structures</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Descriptions</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Examples</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Rock Salt Structure</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Anion(Cl</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">-</span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">)
forms fcc units and cation(Na</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">+</span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">) occupy octahedral voids. Z=4 Coordination
number =6</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">NaCl, KCl, LiCl, RbCl</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Zinc Blende Structure</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Anion (S</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2-</span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">)
forms fcc units and cation (Zn</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2+</span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">) occupy alternate tetrahedral voids Z=4
Coordination number =4</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 28.54%;" valign="top" width="28%">
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">ZnS</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;"> , </span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">BeO</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Fluorite Structures</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 52.54%;" valign="top" width="52%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Cation (Ca</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2+</span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">)
forms fcc units and anions (F</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">-</span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">) occupy tetrahedral voids Z= 4 Coordination
number of anion = 4 Coordination number of cation = 8</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">CaF</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">,
UO</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">, and ThO</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></sub><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Anti- Fluorite Structures</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
<span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">Oxide ions are face centered and metal ions occupy all the
tetrahedral voids.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Na</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">O,
K</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">O and Rb</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">O.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 18.9%;" valign="top" width="18%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Cesium Halide Structure</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 52.54%;" valign="top" width="52%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Halide ions are primitive cubic
while the metal ion occupies the center of the unit cell.<br />
Z=2<br />
Coordination number of = 8</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">All Halides of Cesium.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 18.9%;" valign="top" width="18%">
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Pervoskite Structure</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 52.54%;" valign="top" width="52%">
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> One of the cation is bivalent
and the other is tetravalent. The bivalent ions are present in primitive
cubic lattice with oxide ions on the centers of all the six square faces. The
tetravalent cation is in the center of the unit cell occupying octahedral
void.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 28.54%;" valign="top" width="28%">
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">CaTiO</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">3</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">,
BaTiO</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">3</span></sub><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 7; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 18.9%;" valign="top" width="18%">
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Spinel and Inverse Spinel Structure</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 52.54%;" valign="top" width="52%">
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Spinel :M</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2+</span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">M</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></sub><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">3+</span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">O</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">4</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">, where M</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2+</span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> is present in one-eighth of tetrahedral
voids in a FCC lattice of oxide ions and M</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">3+</span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> ions
are present in half of the octahedral voids. M</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2+</span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> is
usually Mg, Fe, Co, Ni, Zn and Mn; M</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">3+</span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> is
generally Al, Fe, Mn, Cr and Rh.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 28.54%;" valign="top" width="28%">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">MgAl</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">O</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">4 ,</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> ZnAl</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">O</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">4</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">,
Fe</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">3</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">O</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">4</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">,FeCr</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">O</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">4</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">etc.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-outline-level: 2; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Defects in crystal:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Stoichiometric
Defects</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 3.75pt; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">1. Schottky Defects</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> Some of the
lattice points in a crystal are unoccupied.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Appears in ionic
compounds in which anions and cations are of nearly same size.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Decreases the
density of lattice</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Examples: NaCl and
KCl</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">2. Frenkel
Defects</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Ion dislocate from
its position and occupies an interstitial position between the lattice points</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Appears in crystals
in which the negative ions are much larger than the positive ion.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Does not affect
density of the crystal.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Examples: AgBr, ZnS</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Non-Stoichiometric
Defects</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">1. Metal Excess
defect:</span></b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Metal excess defect
occurs due to</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">anionic vacancies
or</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 15.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">presence of extra
cation.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">F-Centres: hole
produced due to absence of anion which is occupied by an electron.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">2. <b>Metal
deficiency defect:</b> </span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Metal deficiency
defect occurs</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">due to variable
valency of metals</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">when one of the
positive ions is missing from its lattice site and the extra negative charge is
balanced by some nearby metal ion acquiring two charges instead of one</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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joodlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14170364647745018340noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-483209861590692835.post-35936209765118791462017-10-17T11:01:00.002-07:002017-10-17T11:03:47.880-07:00Basic Concepts of Chemistry<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Matter:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Anything that exhibits inertia is
called matter.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">The quantity of matter is its mass.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Classification of Matter: -</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Based on chemical composition of
various substances. </span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> </span></b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Elements:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">It is the simplest
form of the matter. </span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Smallest unit of an
element is known as atom.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Total number of the
known elements is 118 out of which 98 elements occur naturally and 20 are
formed by artificial transmutation.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Examples: Na, K,
Mg. Al, Si, P, C, F, Br etc.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Compound:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">It is a
non-elemental pure compound.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 16.5pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 15pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Formed by chemical
combination of two or more atoms of different elements in a fixed ratio.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 16.5pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 15pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Examples: H</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">O,
CO</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">, C</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">6</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">H</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">12</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">O</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">6</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> etc.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Mixture:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Formed by physical
combination of two or more pure substances in any ratio.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 16.5pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 15pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Chemical identity
of the pure components remains maintained in mixtures.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Homogeneous
mixtures are those whose composition for each part remains constant.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Example, Aqueous
and gaseous solution.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Heterogeneous
mixtures are those whose composition may vary for each and every part.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Example, Soil and
concrete mixtures.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Physical Quantities and Their
Measurement:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Fundamental Units:
-</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">These units can
neither be derived from one another nor can be further resolved into any other
units. Seven fundamental units of the S.I. system </span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center">
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="background: #00CCFF; border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .25pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .75pt; mso-border-right-alt: .25pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .75pt; mso-cellspacing: 0cm; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 100%px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 33.9%;" width="33%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Physical
quantity</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 33.22%;" width="33%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Name
of the unit</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 32.88%;" width="32%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Symbol
of the unit</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 33.9%;" width="33%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Time</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 33.22%;" width="33%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Second</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 32.88%;" width="32%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">S</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 33.9%;" width="33%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Mass</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 33.22%;" width="33%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Kilogram</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 32.88%;" width="32%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">kg</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 33.9%;" width="33%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Length</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 33.22%;" width="33%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Meter</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 32.88%;" width="32%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">m</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 33.9%;" width="33%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Temperature</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 33.22%;" width="33%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Kelvin</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 32.88%;" width="32%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">K</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 33.9%;" width="33%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Electric
current</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 33.22%;" width="33%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Ampere</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 32.88%;" width="32%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">A</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 33.9%;" width="33%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Luminous
intensity</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 33.22%;" width="33%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Candela</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 32.88%;" width="32%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Cd</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 7; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 33.9%;" width="33%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Amount
of substance</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 33.22%;" width="33%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Mole</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 32.88%;" width="32%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Mol </span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Derived Units: - </span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 16.5pt; margin: 3.75pt 0cm 6pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">These units are
the function of more than one fundamental unit <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center">
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="background: #00CCFF; border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .25pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .75pt; mso-border-right-alt: .25pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .75pt; mso-cellspacing: 0cm; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 100%px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 32.76%;" width="32%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Quantity
with Symbol</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 29.5%;" width="29%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Unit
(S.I.)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 37.74%;" width="37%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Symbol</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 32.76%;" width="32%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Velocity
(v)</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 29.5%;" width="29%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Metre
per sec</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 37.74%;" width="37%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">ms</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">-1</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 32.76%;" width="32%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Area
(A)</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 29.5%;" width="29%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Square
metre</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 37.74%;" width="37%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">m</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 32.76%;" width="32%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Volume
(V)</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 29.5%;" width="29%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Cubic
metre </span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 37.74%;" width="37%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">m</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">3</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 32.76%;" width="32%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Density
(r)</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 29.5%;" width="29%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Kilogram
m</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">-3</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 37.74%;" width="37%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Kg
m</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">-3</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 32.76%;" width="32%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Energy
(E)</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 29.5%;" width="29%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Joule
(J)</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 37.74%;" width="37%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Kg
m</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">2</span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">s</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">-2</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 32.76%;" width="32%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Force
(F)</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 29.5%;" width="29%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Newton
(N)</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 37.74%;" width="37%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Kg
ms</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">-2</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 7;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 32.76%;" width="32%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Frequency
(n)</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 29.5%;" width="29%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Hertz</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 37.74%;" width="37%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Cycle
per sec</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 8;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 32.76%;" width="32%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Pressure
(P)</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 29.5%;" width="29%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Pascal
(Pa)</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 37.74%;" width="37%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Nm</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">-2</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 9; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 32.76%;" width="32%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Electrical
charge</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 29.5%;" width="29%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Coulomb
(C)</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: solid #DBDBDB 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: .75pt; mso-border-color-alt: #DBDBDB; mso-border-left-alt: .25pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .25pt; padding: 0cm 3.75pt 0cm 3.75pt; width: 37.74%;" width="37%">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">A-s
(ampere – second)</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 18pt; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Measurement of Temperature</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Three scales of
temperature</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Kelvin scale (K)</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Degree Celsius
scale (</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">o</span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">C)</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Degree Fahrenheit scale
(</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">o</span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">F)</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Relations between
the scales:</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;"> o</span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">F = 9/5(</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">o</span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">C) + 32</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">K = </span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">o</span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">C +
273</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">0 K temperatures is
called absolute zero.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Dalton’s Atomic Theory:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Every matter
consists of indivisible atoms.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Atoms can neither
be created nor destroyed.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Atoms of a given
element are identical in properties</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> Atoms of
different elements differ in properties.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Atoms of different
elements combine in a fixed ratio to form molecule of a compound.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; padding: 0cm;">Precision and
Accuracy: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Precision:</span></b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> Closeness of outcomes of different
measurements taken for the same quantity. </span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Accuracy:</span></b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> Agreement of experimental value to the
true value </span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Significant figures:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Rules:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">All non-zero digits
are significant.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Zeroes preceding
the first non-zero digit are not significant.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Zeroes between two
non-zero digits are significant.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Zeroes at the end
of a number are significant when they are on the right side of the decimal
point.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Counting numbers of
objects have infinite significant figures. <b> </b></span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Scientific Notation:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Numbers are
represented in N × 10</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">n</span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> form.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Where, </span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">N = Digit
term </span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">n = exponent having
positive or negative value.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Examples,<br />
12540000 = 1.254 × 10</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">7</span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"><br />
0.00456 = 4.56 ×10</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">-3</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Mathematical Operations of Scientific
Notation:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Multiplication and
Division:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Follow the same
rules which are for exponential number.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Example: (7.0 ×10</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">3 </span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">) ×
(8.0×10</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">-7 </span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">) = ( 7.0×8.0) × ( 10</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">[3 + (-7)] </span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">) = 56.0 × 10</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">-4</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Result cannot have
more digits to the rite of decimal point than either of the original numbers</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">(7.0 ×10</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">3 </span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">) /
(8.0×10</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">-7 </span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">) = ( 7.0/8.0) × ( 10</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">[3 - (-7)] </span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">) = 0.875 ×10</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">10 </span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">=
0.9 ×10</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">10 </span></sup><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Addition and
Subtraction:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Numbers are written
in such way that they have same exponent and after that coefficients are added
or subtracted.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">(5 ×10</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">3 </span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">) +
(8×10</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">5 </span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">) = (5 ×10</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">3 </span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">) + (800×10</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">3 </span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">) = (5+800) ×10</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">3 </span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">=
805×10</span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">3</span></sup><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Result must be
reported with no more significant figures as there in the original number with
few significant figures.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Rules for limiting
the result of mathematical operations:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">If the rightmost
digit to be removed is more than 5, the preceding number is increased by one.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 16.5pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 15pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">If the rightmost
digit to be removed is less than 5, the preceding number is not changed.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">If the rightmost
digit to be removed is 5, then the preceding number is not changed if it is an
even number but is increased by one if it is an odd number.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Dimensional Analysis: -</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">This is based on
the fact that ratio of each fundamental quantity in one unit with their
equivalent quantity in other unit is equal to one. </span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Derived unit first
expressed in dimension and each fundamental quantities like mass length time
are converted in other system of desired unit to work out the
conversion factor </span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Original Quantity ×
Conversion factor = Equivalent Quantity</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> (In former unit)
(In final Unit)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Example: - (1 kg/2.205 pound) =
1=(1kg/1000gm)</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">So 1 kg = 2.205 pound = 1000 gm</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Laws of Chemical Combination</span></b><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 26pt; padding: 0cm;">:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Law of conservation
of mass: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">“For any chemical
change total mass of active reactants are always equal to the mass of the product
formed”</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Law of constant
proportions:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> “A chemical
compound always contains same elements in definite proportion by mass and it
does not depend on the source of compound”.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Law of multiple
proportions:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> “When two
elements combine to form two or more than two different compounds then the
different masses of one element B which combine with fixed mass of the other
element bear a simple ratio to one another” </span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Law of reciprocal
proportion: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">“If two elements B
and C react with the same mass of a third element (A), the ratio in which they
do so will be the same or simple multiple if B and C reacts with
each other”.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Gay Lussac’s law of
combining volumes: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">“At given
temperature and pressure the volumes of all gaseous reactants and products bear
a simple whole number ratio to each other”.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 18pt; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Atomic and Molecular Masses:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Atomic Mass:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 16.5pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 15pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Mass of an atom.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 16.5pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 15pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Reported in atomic
mass unit “amu” or unified mass “u”</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 16.5pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 15pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">One atomic mass
unit i.e. amu, is the mass exactly equal to one-twelfth the mass of one
carbon-12 atom.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Molecular Mass:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 16.5pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 15pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Mass of a molecule
of covalent compound.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 16.5pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 15pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">It is equal to the
sum of atomic masses of all the elements present in the molecule.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Formula Unit Mass</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Mass of a molecule
of an ionic compound</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">It is also equal to
the sum of atomic masses of all the elements present in the molecule </span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Mole Concept:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Mole:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Unit of amount of
substance.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">One mole amount of
substance that contains as many particles or entities as there are atoms
in exactly 12 g of the </span><sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">12</span></sup><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">C isotope.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Molar mass:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Mass of one mole of
a substance in gram</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Molar mass in gram
in numerically equal to atomic/molecular/formula mass in amu or u.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">? Percentage
composition:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Mass percentage of
an element in a compound = (Mass of that element in the compound /
Molecular mass of the compound)×100 </span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Percentage yield:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">It is the ratio of
actual yield of the reaction to the theoretical yield multiplied by 100.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">% yield = (Actual
yield /Theoretical yield) ×100</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Empirical formula and molecular
formula:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Molecular Formula:
-</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Represents the actual number of each
individual atom in any molecule is known as molecular formula. </span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Empirical Formula:
-</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">E</span></b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">xpresses
the smallest whole number ratio of the constituent atom within the
molecule. </span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Molecular formula = (Empirical formula)</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 14pt; padding: 0cm;">n</span></sub><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Molecular weight = n × Empirical weight</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">also,</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Molecular weight = 2 × Vapour
density </span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Limiting Reagent:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">The reactant which
is totally consumed during the course of reaction and when it is consumed
reaction stops.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">For a balanced
reaction reaction:</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">A +B </span><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">→</span><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> C + D</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">B would be a
limiting reagent if n</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">A</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> / n</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">B</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">>n</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">B</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">/n</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">A</span></sub><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Similarly, A is a
limiting reagent if n</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">A</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> / n</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">B</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"><n</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">B</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">/n</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; padding: 0cm;">A</span></sub><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt; padding: 0cm;">Concentration of the solutions:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Mass by Mass
Percentage:-</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 18pt; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Amount of solute in gram present per
100 gm of the solution. </span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 18pt; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Mass percentage of solute = [(Mass of
solute)/ (Mass of solution)] x100</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Mass by Volume
Percentage:-</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 18pt; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Amount solute in gram present per 100
mL of the solution.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Volume by Volume
Percentage:-</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 18pt; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Volume of solute per 100 mL of the
solution</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 18pt; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Volume by volume percentage of solute =
[(Volume of solute)/(volume of solution)] x100 </span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 16.5pt; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Parts per million (
ppm) :-</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 18pt; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">T</span></b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">he
amount of solute in gram per million (106) gram of the solution.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 18pt; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">ppm = [(mass of solute/mass of
solution)]x 106 </span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Mole fraction:-</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Ratio of the moles of one component of
the solution to the total number of moles of solution</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Total mole fraction of all the
components of a solution is equal to 1.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">For binary solutions having two
components A and B</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Mole fraction of A </span></b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">X</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 14pt; padding: 0cm;">A</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> = (n</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 14pt; padding: 0cm;">A</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">)/(n</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 14pt; padding: 0cm;">A</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">+n</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 14pt; padding: 0cm;">B</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">)]</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Mole fraction of B</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> X</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 14pt; padding: 0cm;">B</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> =
(n</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 14pt; padding: 0cm;">B</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">)/(n</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 14pt; padding: 0cm;">A</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">+n</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 14pt; padding: 0cm;">B</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">)] </span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">or X</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 14pt; padding: 0cm;">B</span></sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;"> =
1- X</span><sub><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 14pt; padding: 0cm;">A</span></sub><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Molarity(M):-</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Number of moles of
solute per 1000 mL of the solution.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">M = (Number
of moles of solute)/(Volume of solution in L) </span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">Molality(m): -</span></b><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">number of moles of
solute per 1000 gram of the solvent.</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; padding: 0cm;">m = (Number of
moles of solute)/(Weight of solvent in kg)</span><span style="font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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joodlehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14170364647745018340noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-483209861590692835.post-25675192097890901992012-03-25T05:03:00.002-07:002012-03-25T05:03:37.359-07:00(Chemistry Ch-2) 9. Filling of Orbitals in Atom & Electronic Configuration of Atoms<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Auf</b><b>bau Principle</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">In the ground state of atoms, the orbitals are filled in the increasing order of their energy.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The given table shows the arrangement of orbitals with increasing energy on the basis of (<i>n</i> + <i>l</i>) rule.</div></li>
</ul><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Orbitals</b></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Value of </b><i><b>n</b></i></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Value of </b><i><b>l</b></i></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Value of (</b><i><b>n</b></i><b> + </b><i><b>1</b></i><b>)</b></div></td><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">1<i>s</i></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">1</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">0</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">1 + 0 = 1</div></td><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">2<i>s</i></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">2</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">0</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">2 + 0 = 2</div></td><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">2<i>p</i></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">2</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">1</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">2 + 1 = 3</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">2<i>p</i> (<i>n</i> = 2) has lower energy than 3<i>s</i></div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">3<i>s</i></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">3</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">0</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">3 + 0 = 3</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">3<i>s</i> (<i>n</i> = 3)</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">3<i>p</i></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">3</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">1</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">3 + 1 = 4</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">3<i>p</i> (<i>n</i> = 3) has lower energy than 4<i>s</i></div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">4<i>s</i></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">4</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">0</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">4 + 0 = 4</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">4<i>s</i> (<i>n</i> = 4)</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">3<i>d</i></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">3</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">2</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">3 + 2 = 5</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">3<i>d</i> (<i>n</i> = 3) has lower energy than 4<i>p</i></div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">4<i>p</i></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">4</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">1</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">4 + 1 = 5</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">4<i>p</i> (<i>n</i> = 4)</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Increasing order of the energy of the orbitals and hence, the order of the filling of orbitals: 1<i>s</i>, 2<i>s</i>, 2<i>p</i>, 3<i>s</i>, 3<i>p</i>, 4<i>s</i>, 3<i>d</i>, 4<i>p</i>, 5<i>s</i>, 4<i>d</i>, 5<i>p</i>, 6<i>s</i>, 4<i>f</i>, 5<i>d</i>, 6<i>p</i>, 7<i>s</i>, …</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="BOTTOM" alt="" border="0" height="268" name="graphics1" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1347/1357/3-6-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.9_SS_html_m7ce5182a.png" width="135" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Paul</b><b>i Exclusion Principle</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of all the four quantum numbers.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Two electrons can have the same value of three quantum numbers <i>n</i>,<i> l</i>, and <i>m</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">e</sub>, but must have the opposite spin quantum number (<i>s</i>).</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The maximum number of electrons in the shell with the principal quantum number <i>n</i> is equal to 2<i>n</i><sup style="font-size: 12px;">2</sup>.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging to the same sub-shell (<i>p</i>, <i>d</i>, or <i>f</i>) does not take place until each orbital belonging to that sub-shell has got one electron each (i.e., singly occupied).</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Orbitals of equal energy (i.e., same sub-shell) are called degenerate orbitals.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Electr</b><b>onic Configuration of Atoms</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Can be represented in two ways:</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><i>s</i><sup style="font-size: 12px;">a</sup> <i>p</i><sup style="font-size: 12px;">b</sup> <i>d</i><sup style="font-size: 12px;">c</sup> …</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Orbital diagram</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="BOTTOM" alt="" border="0" height="41" name="graphics2" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1347/1357/3-6-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.9_SS_html_m7bd2d1f6.png" width="283" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><i>a, b, c</i><i>,</i> …, etc. represent the number of electrons present in the sub-shell. In an orbital diagram, an electron is represented by an up arrow (↑) indicating a positive spin, or a down arrow (↓) indicating a negative spin.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">For example,</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="BOTTOM" alt="" border="0" height="215" name="graphics3" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1347/1357/3-6-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.9_SS_html_m1fe6b0b.png" width="343" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Stability of </b><b>completely filled and half-filled sub-shells</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><i>p</i><sup style="font-size: 12px;">3</sup>, <i>p</i><sup style="font-size: 12px;">6</sup>, <i>d</i><sup style="font-size: 12px;">5</sup>, <i>d</i><sup style="font-size: 12px;">10</sup>, <i>f</i><sup style="font-size: 12px;">7</sup>, <i>f</i><sup style="font-size: 12px;">14</sup>, etc. configurations, which are either half-filled or fully filled, are more stable.</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Symmetrical </b><b>Distribution of Electrons</b></div><ul><li>Symmetry leads to stability.</li>
<li>The completely filled or half-filled sub-shells have symmetrical distribution of electrons in them. Hence, they are stable.</li>
</ul></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Exchange </b><b>Energy</b></div><ul><li>Whenever two or more electrons with the same spin are present in the degenerate orbitals of a sub-shell, the stabilising effect arises.</li>
<li>Such electrons tend to exchange their positions and the energy released due to the exchange is called exchange energy.</li>
<li>If the exchange energy is maximum, then the stability is also maximum.</li>
<li>The number of exchanges that can take place is maximum when the sub-shell is either half-filled or completely filled.</li>
<li>Possible exchange for <i>d</i><sup style="font-size: 12px;">5 </sup>configuration:</li>
</ul></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="BOTTOM" alt="" border="0" height="217" name="graphics4" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1347/1357/3-6-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.9_SS_html_m6c19b242.png" width="348" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Total number of exchanges = 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 10.</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><strong><a href="" name="3920" style="color: #f6782b; text-decoration: none;"></a></strong></div><center style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><strong><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" height="500" width="750"><embed src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/195/672/1347/3920/video_1_11_13_195_672_1347_3920-2.swf?25-03-2012" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="750" height="500" base="/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/195/672/1347/3920/"></object></strong></center><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><strong><a href="" name="943" style="color: #f6782b; text-decoration: none;"></a></strong></div><center style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><strong><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" height="400" width="500"><embed src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/195/672/1347/943/video_1_11_13_195_672_1347_943-1.swf?25-03-2012" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="500" height="400" base="/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/195/672/1347/943/"></object></strong></center></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-483209861590692835.post-29771757182697422072012-03-25T05:02:00.002-07:002012-03-25T05:02:35.847-07:00(Chemistry Ch-2) 8. Shapes of Atomic Orbitals; Energies of Atomic Orbitals<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><i><br class="Apple-interchange-newline" />Ψ</i><sup style="font-size: 12px;"><i>2</i></sup> (i.e, square of the wave function) at a point gives the probability density of the electron at that point.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The variations of <i>Ψ</i><sup style="font-size: 12px;"><i>2</i></sup>and <i>Ψ</i> with <i>r</i> for 1<i>s</i> and 2<i>s</i> orbitals are shown in the figure below.</div></li>
</ul><div align="CENTER" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="BOTTOM" alt="" border="0" height="237" name="graphics1" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1346/1358/3-6-2009_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.8_SS_html_7c277291.png" width="274" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">For 1<i>s</i> orbital, the probability density is maximum at the nucleus and it decreases sharply as we move away from it.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">For 2<i>s</i> orbital, the probability density first decreases sharply to zero and then again starts increasing.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The region where the probability density function reduces to zero is called nodal surface or node.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">For <i>ns</i>-orbital, there are (n -1) nodes.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">For 2<i>s</i>-orbital, there is one node; and for 3<i>s</i>-orbitals, there are two nodes.</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Boundary </b><b>Surface Diagrams</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Give a fairly good representation of the shape of the orbitals</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Boundary surface diagrams for 1<i>s</i> and 2<i>s</i> orbitals are:</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="BOTTOM" alt="" border="0" height="119" name="graphics2" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1346/1358/3-6-2009_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.8_SS_html_m7d21d607.png" width="203" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><ul><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">1<i>s</i> and 2<i>s</i> are spherical in shape.</div></li>
</ul></ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Boundary surface diagram for three 2p orbitals (l = 1) are shown in the figure below.</div></li>
</ul><div align="CENTER" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="BOTTOM" alt="" border="0" height="204" name="graphics3" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1346/1358/3-6-2009_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.8_SS_html_28f352fb.png" width="207" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Boundary diagrams for the five 3<i>d</i> orbitals are shown in the figure below.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="BOTTOM" alt="" border="0" height="432" name="graphics4" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1346/1358/3-6-2009_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.8_SS_html_m262e7776.png" width="195" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The total number of nodes is given by (<i>n</i>-1) i.e, sum of <i>l</i> angular nodes and (<i>n</i>-<i>l</i>-1) radial nodes.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Energy of Orbitals:</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The energy of the orbitals increases as follows:</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">1<i>s</i> < 2<i>s</i> = 2<i>p</i> < 3<i>s</i> = 3<i>p</i> = 3<i>d</i> < 4<i>s</i> = 4<i>p</i> = 4<i>d</i> = 4<i>f</i> < ….</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Lower the value of (<i>n</i> + l) for an orbital, lower is its energy.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">When two orbitals have the same value of (<i>n</i> + l), the orbital with lower value of <i>n</i> will have lower energy.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Energy level diagram:</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"> <img align="BOTTOM" alt="" border="0" height="271" name="graphics5" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1346/1358/3-6-2009_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.8_SS_html_m17fc9a86.png" width="103" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Effective nuclear charge (<i>Z</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">eff </sub><i>e</i>): Net positive charge experienced by the electrons from the nucleus</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Energies of the orbitals in the same subshell decrease with the increase in the atomic number (<i>Z</i>).</div></li>
</ul></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-483209861590692835.post-11341287348488540542012-03-25T05:01:00.002-07:002012-03-25T05:01:35.138-07:00(Chemistry Ch-2) 7. Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Macroscopic objects have particle character, so their motion can be described in terms of classical mechanics, based on Newton’s laws of motion.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Microscopic objects, such as electrons, have both wave-like and particle-like behaviour, so they cannot be described in terms of classical mechanics. To do so, a new branch of science called quantum mechanics was developed.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Quantum mechanics was developed independently by Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrodinger in 1926.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Quantum mechanics takes into account the dual nature (particle and wave) of matter.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">On the basis of quantum mechanics, a new model known as quantum mechanical model was developed.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">In the quantum mechanical model, the behaviour of microscopic particles (electrons) in a system (atom) is described by an equation known as Schrodinger equation, which is given below:</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="27" name="Object1" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1345/1590/21-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.7_SJT_LVN_html_5d1eedec.gif" width="67" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Where,</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="23" name="Object2" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1345/1590/21-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.7_SJT_LVN_html_m3cb8f391.gif" width="17" />= Mathematical operator known as Hamiltonian operator</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">ψ = Wave function (amplitude of the electron wave)</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><i>E</i> = Total energy of the system (includes all sub-atomic particles such as electrons, nuclei)</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The solutions of Schrodinger equation are called wave functions.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Hydrogen </b><b>atom and Schrodinger equation</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">After solving Schrodinger equation for hydrogen atom, certain solutions are obtained which are permissible.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Each permitted solution corresponds to a definite energy state, and each definite energy state is called an orbital. In the case of an atom, it is called atomic orbital, and in the case of a molecule, it is called a molecular orbital.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Each orbital is characterised by a set of the following three quantum numbers:</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Principal quantum number (<i>n</i>)</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Azimuthal quantum number (<i>l</i>)</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Magnetic quantum number (<i>m</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;"><i>l</i></sub>)</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">For a multi-electron atom, Schrodinger equation cannot be solved exactly.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Important Features of the Quantum Mechanical Model of an Atom</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The energy of electrons in an atom is quantised (i.e., electrons can only have certain specific values of energy).</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The existence of quantised electronic energy states is a direct result of the wave-like property of electrons.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The exact position and the exact velocity of an electron in an atom cannot be determined simultaneously (Heisenberg uncertainty principle).</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">An atomic orbital is represented by the wave function ψ, for an electron in an atom, and is associated with a certain amount of energy.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">There can be many orbitals in an atom, but an orbital cannot contain more than two electrons.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The orbital wave function ψ gives all the information about an electron.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">|ψ|<sup style="font-size: 12px;">2</sup> is known as probability density, and from its value at different points within an atom, the probable region for finding an electron around the nucleus can be predicted.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Orbitals and Quantum Numbers</b></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Smaller the size of an orbital, greater is the chance of finding an electron near the nucleus.</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Each orbital is characterised by a set of the following three quantum numbers:</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The principal quantum number (<i>n</i>)</div><ul><li>Positive integers (<i>n</i> = 1, 2, 3,………)</li>
<li>Determines the size and energy of the orbital</li>
<li>Identifies the shell</li>
<li><i>n</i> = 1, 2, 3, 4, ……..</li>
</ul></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px; margin-left: 80px;">Shell = K, L, M, N, ……..</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px; margin-left: 80px;">With an increase in the value of <i>n</i>, there is an increase in the number of allowed orbitals (<i>n</i><sup style="font-size: 12px;">2</sup>), the size of an orbital and the energy of an orbital.</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The Azimuthal quantum number (<i>l</i>)</div><ul><li>Also known as orbital angular momentum or subsidiary quantum number</li>
<li>Defines the three-dimensional shape of an orbital</li>
<li>For a given value of <i>n</i>, <i>l</i> can have <i>n</i> values, ranging from 0 to <i>n </i>− 1.</li>
</ul></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px; margin-left: 80px;">For <i>n</i> = 1, <i>l</i> = 0</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px; margin-left: 80px;">For <i>n</i> = 2, <i>l</i> = 0, 1</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px; margin-left: 80px;">For <i>n</i> = 3, <i>l</i> = 0, 1, 2</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px; margin-left: 80px;">For <i>n</i> = 4, <i>l</i> = 0, 1, 2, 3, ………and so on</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Each shell consists of one or more sub-shells or sub-levels. The number of sub-shells is equal to <i>n</i>, and each sub-shell corresponds to different values of <i>l</i>.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px; margin-left: 80px;">For <i>n</i> = 1, there is only one sub-shell (<i>l</i> = 0)</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px; margin-left: 80px;">For<i> n</i> = 2, there are two sub-shells (<i>l</i> = 0, 1)</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px; margin-left: 80px;">For<i> n</i> = 3, there are three sub-shells (l = 0, 1, 2)…….. and so on</div><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dl><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td valign="TOP"><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Value for </b><i><b>l</b></i></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">0</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">1</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">2</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">3</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">4</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">5 ……</div></td></tr>
<tr><td valign="TOP"><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Notation for sub-shell</b></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><i>s</i></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><i>p</i></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><i>d</i></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><i>f</i></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><i>g</i></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><i>h</i> ……</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl></dl><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Sub-shell notations corresponding to the given principal quantum numbers and azimuthal quantum numbers are listed in the given table.</div><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP"><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Principal quantum number (</b><i><b>n)</b></i></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Azimuthal quantum number (</b><i><b>l</b></i><b>)</b></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Sub-shell notations</b></div></td></tr>
<tr valign="TOP"><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">1</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">0</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">1<i>s</i></div></td></tr>
<tr valign="TOP"><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">2</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">0</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">2<i>s</i></div></td></tr>
<tr valign="TOP"><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">2</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">1</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">2<i>p</i></div></td></tr>
<tr valign="TOP"><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">3</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">0</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">3<i>s</i></div></td></tr>
<tr valign="TOP"><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">3</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">1</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">3<i>p</i></div></td></tr>
<tr valign="TOP"><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">3</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">2</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">3<i>d</i></div></td></tr>
<tr valign="TOP"><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">4</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">0</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">4<i>s</i></div></td></tr>
<tr valign="TOP"><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">4</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">1</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">4<i>p</i></div></td></tr>
<tr valign="TOP"><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">4</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">2</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">4<i>d</i></div></td></tr>
<tr valign="TOP"><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">4</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">3</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">4<i>f</i></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The magnetic orbital quantum number (<i>m</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;"><i>l</i></sub>):</div><ul><li>Gives information about the spatial orientation of the orbital with respect to the standard set of co-ordinate axis</li>
<li>For a given value of <i>l</i> (i.e., for a given sub-shell), 2<i>l</i> + 1 values of <i>m</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;"><i>l</i></sub> are possible.</li>
</ul></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px; margin-left: 40px;"><i>m</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;"><i>l</i></sub> = −<i>l</i>, −(<i>l</i> − 1), − (<i>l</i> − 2), …0, 1,….(<i>l</i> − 2), (<i>l</i> − 1), <i>l</i></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px; margin-left: 40px;">Example:</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px; margin-left: 40px;">For <i>l </i>= 0, <i>m</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;"><i>l</i></sub> = 0 (one <i>s</i>-orbital)</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px; margin-left: 40px;">For <i>l </i>= 1, <i>m</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;"><i>l</i></sub> = −1, 0 + 1 (three <i>p</i>-orbitals)</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px; margin-left: 40px;">For <i>l</i> = 2, <i>m</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;"><i>l</i></sub> = −2, −1, 0, +1, +2 (five <i>d</i>-orbitals)</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px; margin-left: 40px;">For <i>l</i> = 3, <i>m</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;"><i>l</i></sub> = −3, −2, −1, 0, + 1, +2, + 3 (seven <i>f</i>-orbitals)</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">The relation between the sub-shell and the number of orbitals is given in the following table:</div><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dl><dl><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP"><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Sub</b><b>-shell notation</b></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Number of orbitals</b></div></td></tr>
<tr valign="TOP"><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><i>s</i></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">1</div></td></tr>
<tr valign="TOP"><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><i>p</i></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">3</div></td></tr>
<tr valign="TOP"><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><i>d</i></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">5</div></td></tr>
<tr valign="TOP"><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><i>f</i></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">7</div></td></tr>
<tr valign="TOP"><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><i>g</i></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">9</div></td></tr>
<tr valign="TOP"><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><i>h</i></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">11</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl></dl></dl><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">There is a fourth quantum number known as the electron spin quantum number (<i>m</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;"><i>s</i></sub>).</div><ul><li>It designates the orientation of the spin of an electron. There are two orientations of an electron, known as the two spin states of an electron: +<img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="41" name="Object3" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1345/1590/21-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.7_SJT_LVN_html_eeecab0.gif" width="16" />and −<img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="41" name="Object4" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1345/1590/21-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.7_SJT_LVN_html_eeecab0.gif" width="16" />or ↑(spin up) and ↓(spin down)</li>
<li>An orbital cannot hold more than two electrons.</li>
</ul></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><br />
</div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com30tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-483209861590692835.post-13921130607055253052012-03-25T05:00:00.002-07:002012-03-25T05:00:47.053-07:00(Chemistry Ch-2) 6. Dual Behaviour of Matter & Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Dual Behaviour of Matter</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Matter, like radiation, exhibits dual behaviour (i.e., both particle and wave-like properties).</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Electrons should have momentum as well as wavelength, just as photon has momentum as well as wavelength.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">De Broglie gave the relationship between wavelength (λ) and momentum (<i>p</i>) of a material particle.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" height="44" name="Object1" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1344/1385/19-5-2009_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.6_Utpal_LVN_html_6cdb0e91.gif" width="80" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Where, <i>m</i> is the mass of the particle and <i>v</i> is its velocity</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">According to de Broglie, every object in motion has a wave character.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Wavelengths of objects having large masses are so short that their wave properties cannot be detected.</div></li>
</ul><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td valign="TOP"><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Example</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Let us try to calculate the wavelength of a ball of mass 0.01 kg, moving with a velocity of 20 ms<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup>.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Using de Broglie equation</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" height="91" name="Object2" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1344/1385/19-5-2009_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.6_Utpal_LVN_html_m192d4e16.gif" width="161" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">∴λ = 3.313 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−33</sup> m</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">The value of wavelength is so small that wave properties of the ball cannot be detected.</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Wavelengths of particles having very small masses (electron and other subatomic particles) can be detected experimentally.</div></li>
</ul><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td valign="TOP"><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Example</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">If an electron is moving with a velocity of 6.0 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">6</sup> m/s, then the wavelength of the electron can be calculated as follows:</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" height="91" name="Object3" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1344/1385/19-5-2009_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.6_Utpal_LVN_html_5e7dd6aa.gif" width="217" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">∴λ = 1.21 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−10</sup> m</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Thus, de Broglie’s concept is more significant for microscopic particles whose wavelength can be measured.</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Heisenberg</b><b>’s Uncertainty Principle</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Impossible to determine simultaneously the exact position and the exact momentum of an electron (microscopic particle) with absolute accuracy and certainty</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Mathematically, it can be represented as</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Δ<i>x</i> × Δ<i>p</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;"><i>x</i></sub> ≥ <img align="ABSMIDDLE" height="41" name="Object4" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1344/1385/19-5-2009_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.6_Utpal_LVN_html_m4766a35d.gif" width="24" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Or, Δ<i>x</i> × Δ<i>(mv</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;"><i>x</i></sub>) ≥ <img align="ABSMIDDLE" height="41" name="Object5" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1344/1385/19-5-2009_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.6_Utpal_LVN_html_m4766a35d.gif" width="24" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Or, Δ<i>x</i> × Δ<i>v</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;"><i>x</i></sub> ≥ <img align="ABSMIDDLE" height="45" name="Object6" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1344/1385/19-5-2009_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.6_Utpal_LVN_html_5f1c90de.gif" width="43" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Where,</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Δ<i>x</i> is the uncertainty in position</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Δ<i>v</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;"><i>x</i></sub> is the uncertainty in velocity</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Δ<i>p</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;"><i>x</i></sub> is the uncertainty in momentum</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">If the uncertainty in position (Δ<i>x</i>) is less, then the uncertainty in momentum (Δ<i>p</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;"><i>x</i></sub>) would be large. On the other hand, if the uncertainty in momentum (Δ<i>p</i>) is less, the uncertainty in position (Δ<i>x</i>) would be large.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Significance of Uncertainty Principle</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle rejects the existence of definite paths or trajectories of electrons and other similar particles.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The effect of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle on the motion of macroscopic objects is negligible.</div></li>
</ul><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td valign="TOP"><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Example</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">When an uncertainty principle is applied to an object of mass 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−6</sup> kg,</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Δ<i>v</i> ⋅ Δ<i>x</i> = <img align="ABSMIDDLE" height="45" name="Object7" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1344/1385/19-5-2009_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.6_Utpal_LVN_html_m625eb75.gif" width="43" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= <img align="ABSMIDDLE" height="47" name="Object8" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1344/1385/19-5-2009_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.6_Utpal_LVN_html_36e1b32c.gif" width="152" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">≈ 0.5275 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−28</sup> m<sup style="font-size: 12px;">2</sup> s<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">The value of Δ<i>v</i> ⋅ Δ<i>x</i> is extremely small, and hence, is insignificant. Thus, Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle has no significance for macroscopic bodies.</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">However, this is not the case with the motion of microscopic objects.</div></li>
</ul><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td valign="TOP"><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Example</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">For an electron whose mass is 9.11 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−31</sup> kg, the value of Δ<i>v</i>⋅ Δ<i>x</i> can be calculated as follows:</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Δ<i>v</i>⋅Δ<i>x</i> = <img align="ABSMIDDLE" height="45" name="Object9" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1344/1385/19-5-2009_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.6_Utpal_LVN_html_m625eb75.gif" width="43" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= <img align="ABSMIDDLE" height="47" name="Object10" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1344/1385/19-5-2009_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.6_Utpal_LVN_html_m4485210d.gif" width="153" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">∴ Δ<i>v</i>⋅Δ<i>x</i> ≈ 0.0579 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−4</sup> m<sup style="font-size: 12px;">2</sup> s<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">The value of Δ<i>v</i>⋅Δ<i>x</i> is quite large, and hence, cannot be neglected.</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Reasons for the failure of the Bohr</b><b>’s Model</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Bohr’s model ignores the dual behaviour of matter</b> − In Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom, electron is regarded as a charged particle moving around the nucleus in well-defined circular orbits. <b>It does not account for the wave character of an electron</b>.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Bohr</b><b>’s model contradicts Heisenberg’s Principle</b> − In the Bohr’s model, the electron moves in an orbit. An orbit by definition is a clearly defined path. However, such a completely-defined path can be obtained only if the position and velocity of the electron are known exactly at the same time. <b>This is not possible according to the Uncertainty Principle</b>.</div></li>
</ul></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com7tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-483209861590692835.post-30934364054911262612012-03-25T04:59:00.003-07:002012-03-25T04:59:52.589-07:00(Chemistry Ch-2) 5. Bohr's Model for Hydrogen Atom<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Postulates for Bohr’s model for hydrogen Atom</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The electron in the hydrogen atom moves around the nucleus in a circular path of fixed radius and energy. These circular paths are called orbits, stationary states, or allowed energy states.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Energy is absorbed when electron jumps from lower orbit to a higher orbit and is emitted when electron jumps from higher orbit to a lower orbit.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Frequency (ν) of absorbed or emitted radiation is given by,</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="41" name="Object1" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1343/1377/19-5-09_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.5_SS_html_260e47e4.gif" width="116" /> (Bohr’s frequency rule)</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Where, <i>E</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">1</sub> and <i>E</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub> are the energies of lower and higher allowed energy states respectively</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Angular momentum (L) of an electron in a stationary state is given by,</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="41" name="Object2" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1343/1377/19-5-09_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.5_SS_html_md00d80a.gif" width="183" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b><a href="" name="3918" style="color: #f6782b; text-decoration: none;"></a></b></div><center style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><b><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" height="500" width="750"><embed src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/195/672/1343/3918/video_1_11_13_195_672_1343_3918-1.swf?25-03-2012" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="750" height="500" base="/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/195/672/1343/3918/"></object></b></center><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>On the Basis of These Postulates, Bohr’s Theory for Hydrogen Atom was Obtained</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The stationary states of electron are numbered as <i>n</i> = 1, 2, 3 … and these numbers are called principal quantum numbers.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Radii of the stationary states (<i>r</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">n</sub>) are given by,</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><i>r</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">n</sub> = <i>n</i><sup style="font-size: 12px;">2</sup> <i>a</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">0</sub></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Where, <i>a</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">0 </sub>= 52.9 pm (called Bohr radius)</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Energy (<i>E</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">n</sub>) of the stationary state is given by,</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="45" name="Object3" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1343/1377/19-5-09_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.5_SS_html_m803636c.gif" width="104" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">R<sub style="font-size: 12px;">H</sub> is called Rydberg constant (= 2.18 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−18</sup> J)</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">When electron is free from the influence of nucleus, the energy will be zero.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">When the energy is zero, the electron has principal quantum number,</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><i>n</i> = ∞ (It is called ionized hydrogen atom)</div><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td valign="TOP"><div style="line-height: 22px;">Thus, <img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="45" name="Object4" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1343/1377/19-5-09_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.5_SS_html_7d9d622d.gif" width="255" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><i>E</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">1</sub> is the energy of the lower state (called as ground state).</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="45" name="Object5" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1343/1377/19-5-09_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.5_SS_html_m6b215710.gif" width="267" /></div><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><img align="BOTTOM" alt="" border="0" height="380" name="graphics1" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1343/1377/19-5-09_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.5_SS_html_5fc406d1.png" width="355" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">(Energy of different energy levels of hydrogen atom)</div><ul><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">This figure is called energy level diagram.</div></li>
</ul></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b><a href="" name="5846" style="color: #f6782b; text-decoration: none;"></a></b></div><center style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><b><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" height="500" width="750"><embed src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/195/672/1343/5846/video_1_11_13_195_672_1343_5846-3.swf?25-03-2012" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="750" height="500" base="/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/195/672/1343/5846/"></object></b></center><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Bohr’s theory can be applied to the ions, which are similar to hydrogen atom (containing only one electron). For example − He<sup style="font-size: 12px;">+</sup>, Li<sup style="font-size: 12px;">2+,</sup> Be<sup style="font-size: 12px;">3+</sup>, etc.</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Energies and radii of the stationary states for hydrogen-like species is given by,</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="51" name="Object6" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1343/1377/19-5-09_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.5_SS_html_m65046ec1.gif" width="168" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="44" name="Object7" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1343/1377/19-5-09_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.5_SS_html_m33020b5c.gif" width="88" /> pm = <img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="44" name="Object8" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1343/1377/19-5-09_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.5_SS_html_m28151fb4.gif" width="105" />nm; Z is the atomic number</div><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">Example:</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Let us try to calculate the energy associated with the second orbit of Be<sup style="font-size: 12px;">3+</sup> and the radius of this orbit.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Energy, <img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="44" name="Object9" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1343/1377/19-5-09_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.5_SS_html_m224461c8.gif" width="207" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">For Be<sup style="font-size: 12px;">3+</sup>, <i>n</i> = 2, <i>Z</i> = 4</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="69" name="Object10" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1343/1377/19-5-09_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.5_SS_html_m4c3924ea.gif" width="168" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="112" name="Object11" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1343/1377/19-5-09_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.5_SS_html_3e02bb46.gif" width="181" /></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Calculation of velocities of electrons moving in the orbits is possible by using Bohr’s theory.</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Magnitude of velocity of electron decreases with the decrease in positive charge on the nucleus and increase of principal quantum number.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Line Spectrum of Hydrogen</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Energy difference between two stationary states is given by,</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="192" name="Object12" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1343/1377/19-5-09_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.5_SS_html_mf5fe20b.gif" width="191" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">(Where <i>n</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;"><i>i</i></sub> and <i>n</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;"><i>f</i></sub>stand for initial and final orbits respectively)</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The frequency (ν) for the absorption and emission of photon is given by,</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="165" name="Object13" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1343/1377/19-5-09_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.5_SS_html_m23f78357.gif" width="184" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">In terms of wave numbers <img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="25" name="Object14" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1343/1377/19-5-09_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.5_SS_html_55e058b2.gif" width="24" />,</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="165" name="Object15" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1343/1377/19-5-09_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.5_SS_html_m48da14ea.gif" width="193" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">When n<sub style="font-size: 12px;">f</sub> > <i>n</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;"><i>i</i></sub>, energy is absorbed (absorption spectra).</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">When <i>n</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">i</sub> > <i>n</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">f</sub>, energy is released (emission spectra).</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Each spectral line is associated with particular transition in hydrogen atom.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Intensity of spectral lines depends upon the number of photons of same wavelength or frequency absorbed or emitted.</div></li>
</ul><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">Example:</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Let us try to calculate the frequency and wavelength of the photon emitted during transition from <i>n</i> = 5 to <i>n</i> = 3 state in hydrogen atom.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Since <i>n</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">1</sub> = 5 and <i>n</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub> = 3, this transition gives rise to spectral lines in the infrared region of the Paschen series.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="104" name="Object16" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1343/1377/19-5-09_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.5_SS_html_m26ba4f4c.gif" width="203" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="21" name="Object17" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1343/1377/19-5-09_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.5_SS_html_3d098900.gif" width="145" /> (It represents emission energy)</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Frequency (ν)<img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="41" name="Object18" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1343/1377/19-5-09_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.5_SS_html_m38dd3dab.gif" width="40" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="67" name="Object19" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1343/1377/19-5-09_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.5_SS_html_48eb61db.gif" width="131" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Wavelength <img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="41" name="Object20" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1343/1377/19-5-09_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.5_SS_html_m50f20d98.gif" width="52" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="64" name="Object21" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1343/1377/19-5-09_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.5_SS_html_7327a2ec.gif" width="139" /></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Limitations of Bohr’s Model of Atom</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Unable to explain the spectrum of multi-electron atoms (For example − helium atom which contains two electrons)</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Unable to explain splitting of spectral lines in electric field (Stark effect) or in magnetic field (Zeeman effect)</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Fails to explain finer details (doublet − two closely spaced lines) of hydrogen atom spectrum</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Fails to explain the ability of atoms to form molecules by chemical bonds</div></li>
</ul></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-483209861590692835.post-89472141760926245962012-03-25T04:59:00.000-07:002012-03-25T04:59:04.370-07:00(Chemistry Ch-2) 4. Atomic Spectra<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The spreading of a ray of white light into a series of coloured bands is called spectrum.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The spectrum of white light which ranges from violet at 7.50 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">14</sup> Hz to red at 4 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">14</sup> Hz is called <b>continuous spectrum</b>.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Emission and Absorption Spectra</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Emission spectrum is the spectrum of radiation emitted by a substance that has absorbed energy.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b><a href="" name="942" style="color: #f6782b; text-decoration: none;"></a></b></div><center style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><b><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" height="500" width="750"><embed src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/195/672/1342/942/video_1_11_13_195_672_1342_942-1.swf?25-03-2012" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="750" height="500" base="/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/195/672/1342/942/"></object></b></center><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Absorption spectrum is like the photographic negative of an emission spectrum.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Spectroscopy is the study of emission or absorption spectra.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Atoms in the gas phase do not show a continuous spread of wavelength from red to violet. They emit only at specific wavelengths with dark spaces between them. Such spectra are called <b>line spectra</b> or <b>atomic spectra.</b></div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Line Spectrum of Hydrogen</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">If an electric discharge is passed through gaseous hydrogen, then the H<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub> molecules get dissociated to produce energetically excited hydrogen atoms. These atoms emit electromagnetic radiations of discrete frequencies.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">A spectrum of hydrogen consists of several series of lines.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">When the spectral lines are expressed in terms of wave number<img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="27" name="Object1" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1342/1354/3-6-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.4_LVN_html_739ddbcc.gif" width="27" />, the visible lines of the hydrogen spectra obey the following formula:</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="45" name="Object2" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1342/1354/3-6-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.4_LVN_html_m6543aeec.gif" width="180" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Where, <i>n</i> is an integer equal to or greater than 3 (i.e., <i>n</i> = 3, 4, 5, …)</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The series of lines that can be described by the formula is called Balmer series. It is the only series of line in the hydrogen spectrum which appears in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">All the series of lines in the hydrogen spectrum can be described by the following expression:</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="51" name="Object3" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1342/1354/3-6-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.4_LVN_html_m5a32055e.gif" width="184" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Where, <i>n</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">1</sub> = 1, 2, …</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><i>n</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub> = <i>n</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">1</sub> + 1, <i>n</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub> + 2, …</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">109,677 is called Rydberg constant for hydrogen (<i>R</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">H</sub>)</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The first five series of lines that correspond to <i>n</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">1</sub> = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are known as Lyman, Balmer, Paschen, Brackett and Pfund series.</div></li>
</ul><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Series</b></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><i><b>n</b></i><sub style="font-size: 12px;"><b>1</b></sub></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><i><b>n</b></i><sub style="font-size: 12px;"><b>2</b></sub></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Spectral Region</b></div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">Lyman</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">1</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">2,3…</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">Ultraviolet</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">Balmer</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">2</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">3,4…</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">Visible</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">Paschen</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">3</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">4,5,…</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">Infrared</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">Brackett</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">4</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">5,6…</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">Infrared</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">Pfund</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">5</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">6,7…</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">Infrared</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The Lyman, Balmer and Paschen series of transition for hydrogen atom are shown in the figure.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="BOTTOM" alt="" border="0" height="379" name="graphics1" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1342/1354/3-6-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.4_LVN_html_2e9ff5d3.png" width="284" /></div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-483209861590692835.post-19755024992342063152012-03-25T04:57:00.002-07:002012-03-25T04:57:43.147-07:00(Chemistry Ch-2) 3. Wave Nature of EM Radiation, Particle Nature of EM Radiation, Dual Behaviour of EM Radiation<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Wave Nature of </b><b>Electromagnetic Radiations</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Radiations which are associated with electric and magnetic field are called electromagnetic radiations.</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation</b></div><ul><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The oscillating electric and magnetic field produced by the oscillating charged particles are perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave.</div></li>
</ul></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="BOTTOM" alt="" border="0" height="162" name="graphics1" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1341/1390/20-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.3_SS_html_m33ecea1.png" width="260" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Electromagnetic waves do not require any medium. They can move in vacuum.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">There are many types of electromagnetic waves which differ from one another in wavelength (or frequency). These electromagnetic radiations constitute <i>electromagnetic</i> spectrum.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="BOTTOM" alt="" border="0" height="200" name="graphics2" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1341/1390/20-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.3_SS_html_m6f1d8632.png" width="389" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Different kinds of units are used for the representation of electromagnetic waves.</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Electromagnetic radiations are characterized by the properties − frequency (<i>v</i>) and wave length (λ).</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Frequency </b>− Number of waves that pass a given point in one second</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">The S.I. unit of frequency (<i>ν</i>) is hertz (Hz, s<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup>).</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The S.I. unit of wavelength is metre (m).</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of 3.0 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">8</sup> m/s, which is the speed of light (denoted by <i>c</i>).</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The relationship between frequency (<i>ν</i>), wavelength (λ), and velocity of light (<i>c</i>) is given by,</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><i>c</i> = <i>v</i>λ</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Wave number<img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="25" name="Object1" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1341/1390/20-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.3_SS_html_m72b7427d.gif" width="24" /> − It is defined as the number of wavelengths per unit length or it is the reciprocal of wavelength. The SI unit of wavelength is cm<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup>.</div></li>
</ul><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td valign="TOP"><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Examples</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">(i) The Red FM radio station of India Today Network is broadcasted on a frequency range of 93.5 MHz.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">The wavelength (λ) of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by the transmitter can be calculated as</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="107" name="Object2" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1341/1390/20-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.3_SS_html_m536429d7.gif" width="129" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">The radiation of wavelength 3.2 m belongs to radio wave region of the spectrum.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">(ii) Wave number<img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="25" name="Object3" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1341/1390/20-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.3_SS_html_m72b7427d.gif" width="24" />of red light having wave length 750 mm can be calculated as</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">λ = 750 mm</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 750 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−9</sup> m</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Wave number<img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="25" name="Object4" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1341/1390/20-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.3_SS_html_m72b7427d.gif" width="24" />= <img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="41" name="Object5" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1341/1390/20-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.3_SS_html_72394e50.gif" width="17" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="89" name="Object6" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1341/1390/20-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.3_SS_html_61f74a83.gif" width="119" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">∴ <img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="23" name="Object7" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1341/1390/20-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.3_SS_html_m394893b6.gif" width="123" /></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Particle Nature of Electromagnetic R</b><b>adiation</b></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Wave nature of electromagnetic radiation failed to explain many phenomena such as <i>black body radiation</i> and <i>photoelectric effect</i>.</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Black Body Radiation</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Solids on heating emit radiations over a wide range of wavelengths.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Radiations emitted shift from lower frequency to a higher frequency as the temperature increases.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">An ideal body which absorbs and emits all radiation is called a black body and the radiation emitted by it is called black body radiation.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">An ideal black body is defined as a perfect absorber and a perfect emitter of radiations.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The distribution of frequency of the emitted radiation from a black body depends upon temperature.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The intensity of emitted radiation at a given temperature increases with the decrease in wavelength. It attains a maximum value at a given wavelength and then starts decreasing with further decrease of wavelength.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="BOTTOM" alt="" border="0" height="195" name="graphics3" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1341/1390/20-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.3_SS_html_m201e6ac.png" width="195" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">These experimental results cannot be explained on the basis of wave theory of light.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Photoelectric Effect</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">When certain metals such as potassium, rubidium, caesium, etc. are exposed to a beam light, the electrons are ejected from the surface of the metals as shown in the figure below.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="BOTTOM" alt="" border="0" height="171" name="graphics4" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1341/1390/20-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.3_SS_html_m1584ba96.png" width="266" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The phenomenon is called <i>Photoelectric effect</i>.</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Results of the Experiment</b></div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The electrons are ejected from the surface of the metal as soon as the beam strikes the metal surface.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The number of electrons ejected from the metal surface is directly proportional to the intensity of light.</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">For each metal, there is a certain minimum frequency of light below which photoelectric effect is not observed. This minimum frequency is called threshold frequency<img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="24" name="Object8" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1341/1390/20-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.3_SS_html_46697dd8.gif" width="29" />.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">When<img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="24" name="Object9" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1341/1390/20-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.3_SS_html_1c5c6bc5.gif" width="41" />, the ejected electrons come out with certain kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is directly proportional to the frequency of incident radiation and is independent of incident radiation.</div><div align="CENTER" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="BOTTOM" alt="" border="0" height="177" name="graphics5" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1341/1390/20-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.3_SS_html_m3c8ab7d5.png" width="361" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The results of photoelectric effect could not be explained by using law of classical physics.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><strong><a href="" name="3917" style="color: #f6782b; text-decoration: none;"></a></strong></div><center style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><strong><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" height="500" width="750"><embed src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/195/672/1341/3917/video_1_11_13_195_672_1341_3917-1.swf?25-03-2012" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="750" height="500" base="/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/195/672/1341/3917/"></object></strong></center><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Planck’s Quantum Theory of Radiation</b></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Main features of Planck’s quantum theory of radiation are as follows:</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Radiant energy is not emitted or absorbed in continuous manner, but discontinuously in the form of small packets of energy called <i>quanta</i>.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Each quantum of energy is associated with definite amount of energy.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The amount of energy (E) associated with quantum of radiation is directly proportional to frequency of light (ν).</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">i.e., E ∝ <i>ν</i></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Or, E = h<i>ν</i></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">‘h’ is known as Planck’s constant and has the value 6.626 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−34</sup> Js.</div><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td valign="TOP"><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Example</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Energy of one mole of photons of radiation whose frequency is 3.0 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">15</sup> s<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup> can be calculated as:</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Energy (E) of one photon is given by,</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">E = <i>h</i><i>ν</i></div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><i>h</i> = 6.6.26 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−34</sup> Js</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">ν = 3.0 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">15</sup> s<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">∴ E = (6.626 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−34</sup> Js) × (3.0 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">15</sup> s<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup>)</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">E = 1.99 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−18</sup> J</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Energy of one mole of photons</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="77" name="Object10" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1341/1390/20-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.3_SS_html_m45aededf.gif" width="240" /></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Explanation of Photoelectric Effect Using </b><b>Quantum Theory</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">According to Einstein,</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Energy of the striking photon = Binding energy + Kinetic energy of ejected electron</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Energy of the striking photon = <i>h</i><i>ν</i></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Binding energy = <i>h</i><i>ν</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">0</sub> (also called work function or threshold energy)</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Kinetic energy of ejected electron =<img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="41" name="Object11" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1341/1390/20-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.3_SS_html_395933ef.gif" width="41" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="85" name="Object12" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1341/1390/20-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.3_SS_html_52ac7dd0.gif" width="145" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">If <i>ν</i> < <i>ν</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">0</sub>, then no electrons will be ejected, no matter how high the intensity is.</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">If <i>ν</i> > <i>ν</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">0</sub>, then the excess energy is imported to the ejected electron as kinetic energy. As the frequency of radiation increases, the kinetic energy of the electron will increase.</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">As the intensity increases, more electrons will be ejected, but their kinetic energy does not change.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Dual Behavio</b><b>ur of Electromagnetic Radiations</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Some phenomena (reflection, refraction, diffraction) were explained using wave nature of electromagnetic radiation and some phenomena (photoelectric effect and black body radiation) were explained by using particle nature of radiation.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">This suggests that microscopic particles exhibit wave-particle duality.</div></li>
</ul></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com7tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-483209861590692835.post-42341318149419857102012-03-25T04:56:00.002-07:002012-03-25T04:56:46.549-07:00(Chemistry Ch-2) 2.Thomsons Atomic Model, Rutherfords Atomic Model, Drawbacks of Rutherfords Model, Atomic Number, Isobars and Isotopes<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Thomson</b><b>’s Model of Atom</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">An atom possesses a spherical shape in which the positive charge is uniformly distributed.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="BOTTOM" alt="" border="0" height="94" name="graphics1" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1340/1367/18-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.2_LVN_html_6ee85927.png" width="180" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Known as plum pudding, raisin pudding or watermelon model</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Feature: The mass of an atom is assumed to be uniformly distributed across the atom.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><strong><a href="" name="3916" style="color: #f6782b; text-decoration: none;"></a></strong></div><center style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><strong><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" height="500" width="750"><embed src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/195/672/1340/3916/video_1_11_13_195_672_1340_3916-3.swf?25-03-2012" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="750" height="500" base="/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/195/672/1340/3916/"></object></strong></center><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><br />
</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Rutherford’s </b><b>scattering experiment</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Experimental </b><b>Setup:</b></div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="BOTTOM" alt="" border="0" height="148" name="graphics2" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1340/1367/18-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.2_LVN_html_m48bb7bfe.png" width="377" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">A stream of high-energy α-particles from a radioactive source was directed at the thin gold foil.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Gold foil had a circular fluorescent screen (of zinc sulphide) around it.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">A tiny flash of light was observed at the point, whenever an α-particle struck the screen.</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Observation</b><b>:</b></div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="BOTTOM" alt="" border="0" height="195" name="graphics3" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1340/1367/18-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.2_LVN_html_70182fcf.png" width="283" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Most of the alpha (α) particles passed through the gold foil without deflection.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Some of the α-particles (a small fraction) were deflected by small angles.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Very few of them were deflected nearly by 180°.</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Conclusions</b><b>:</b></div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Most of the space in an atom is empty as most of the α-particles passed through the gold foil un-deflected.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The positive charge is concentrated in a very small volume that repelled and deflected few positively charged α-particles. This small volume of the atom is called nucleus.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The volume of the nucleus is negligibly small as compared to the total volume of the atom.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Rutherford’s Model of Atom</b></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Based on his experiment, Rutherford proposed:</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Positive charge and most of the mass of an atom are densely concentrated in a small region (called nucleus).</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Electrons revolve around the nucleus, with very high speeds, in circular paths called orbits.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Electrons and nucleus are held together in the atom by a strong electrostatic force of attraction.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><strong><a href="" name="940" style="color: #f6782b; text-decoration: none;"></a></strong></div><center style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><strong><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" height="500" width="750"><embed src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/195/672/1340/940/video_1_11_13_195_672_1340_940-1.swf?25-03-2012" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="750" height="500" base="/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/195/672/1340/940/"></object></strong></center><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Mode</b><b>l</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">It cannot explain the stability of an atom on the basis of classical mechanics and electromagnetic theory.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">If the electrons were stationary, then the strong electrostatic force of attraction between the dense nucleus and the electrons would pull the electrons towards the nucleus. Thus, it cannot explain the stability of an atom.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Rutherford’s model does not give any idea about the distribution of electrons around the nucleus (i.e., the electronic structure of the atom), and about their energy.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">It cannot explain the atomic spectra.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><strong><a href="" name="5857" style="color: #f6782b; text-decoration: none;"></a></strong></div><center style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><strong><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" height="500" width="750"><embed src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/195/672/1340/5857/video_1_11_13_195_672_1340_5857-4.swf?25-03-2012" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="750" height="500" base="/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/195/672/1340/5857/"></object></strong></center><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Atomic Number and Mass N</b><b>umber</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Atomic number (<i>Z</i>) = Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">= Number of electrons in a neutral atom</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Mass number (<i>A</i>) = Number of protons (<i>Z</i>) + Number of neutrons (<i>n</i>)</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Isotopes and Isobars</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Isotopes are the atoms with the same atomic number, but different mass numbers.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">For example, <img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="25" name="Object1" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1340/1367/18-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.2_LVN_html_cf7f700.gif" width="47" />and <img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="25" name="Object2" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1340/1367/18-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.2_LVN_html_65a7e71a.gif" width="21" /> are the isotopes of hydrogen.</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Isobars are the atoms with the same mass number, but different atomic numbers.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">For example, <img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="25" name="Object3" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1340/1367/18-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.2_LVN_html_m2e995fda.gif" width="25" /> and <img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="25" name="Object4" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1340/1367/18-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.2_LVN_html_m4d3d3f11.gif" width="28" />; <img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="25" name="Object5" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1340/1367/18-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.2_LVN_html_475d5184.gif" width="33" />and <img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="25" name="Object6" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1340/1367/18-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.2_LVN_html_m2c4d3e66.gif" width="35" /></div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-483209861590692835.post-65502857883440540092012-03-25T04:55:00.002-07:002012-03-25T04:55:48.537-07:00(Chemistry Ch-2) 1. Subatomic Particles: Discovery and Characteristics<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Subatomic Particles</b></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Electron, proton and neutron</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Discovery of </b><b>Electron (Michael Faraday’s Cathode Ray Discharge Tube Experiment)</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Experimen</b><b>tal Setup:</b></div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="BOTTOM" alt="" border="0" height="129" name="graphics1" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1339/1360/18-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.1_LVN_html_m3cec4f49.png" width="248" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Glass tube is partially evacuated (Low pressure inside the tube)</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Very high voltage is applied across the electrodes</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Observation:</b></div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Stream of particles move from the cathode (− ve) to the anode (+ ve) −−− known as cathode rays or cathode ray particles</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Results</b><b>:</b></div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Cathode rays move from the cathode to the anode.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Cathode rays are not visible. They can be observed with the help of phosphorescent or fluorescent materials (such as zinc sulphide).</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="BOTTOM" alt="" border="0" height="129" name="graphics2" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1339/1360/18-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.1_LVN_html_44d2ec35.png" width="225" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">These rays travel in a straight line in the absence of electric and magnetic fields.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The behaviour of cathode rays is similar to negatively charged particles (electrons) in the presence of an electrical or a magnetic field.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Characteristics of cathode rays do not depend upon: the material of the electrodes and the nature of the gas present in the tube</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Conclusion</b><b>s:</b></div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Cathode rays consist of electrons.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Electrons are the basic units of all atoms.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Charge </b><b>to Mass Ratio of Electrons (J.J Thomson’s Experiment)</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">J.J Thomson measured the ratio of charge (<i>e</i>) to the mass of an electron (<i>m</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">e</sub>) by using the following apparatus.</div></li>
</ul><div align="CENTER" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="BOTTOM" alt="" border="0" height="196" name="graphics3" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1339/1360/18-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.1_LVN_html_1f3b68a6.png" width="288" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">He determined <img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="45" name="Object1" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1339/1360/18-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.1_LVN_html_59b7b34b.gif" width="24" />by applying electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to each other as well as to the path of the electrons.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The amount of deviation of the particles from their path in the presence of an electric or a magnetic field depends upon:</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Magnitude of the negative charge on the particle (greater the magnitude on the particle, greater is the deflection)</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Mass of the particle (lighter the particle, greater is the deflection)</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Strength of the electric or magnetic field (stronger the electric or magnetic field, greater is the deflection)</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Observations</b><b>:</b></div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">When only electric field is applied, the electrons deviate to point A (shown in the figure).</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">When only magnetic field is applied, electrons strike point C (shown in the figure).</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">On balancing the electric and magnetic field strength, the electrons hit the screen at point B (shown in the figure) as in the absence of an electric or a magnetic field.</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Result:</b></div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="45" name="Object2" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1339/1360/18-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.1_LVN_html_2aa66488.gif" width="176" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><span lang="EN-IN"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 17px;">To test your knowledge of <b style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><u>this concept</u></b>, solve the following puzzle.</span></span></span></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><strong><span lang="EN-IN"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 17px;"><a href="" name="1107" style="color: #f6782b; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; text-decoration: none;"></a></span></span></span></strong></div><center style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><strong><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 17px;"><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" height="570" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;" width="760"><embed src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/195/672/1339/1107/video_1_11_13_195_672_1339_1107-1.swf?25-03-2012" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="760" height="570" base="/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/195/672/1339/1107/"></object></span></span></strong></center><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Charge on Electron (Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment)</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>The Millikan Oil Drop Apparatus</b><b>:</b></div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="BOTTOM" alt="" border="0" height="206" name="graphics4" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1339/1360/18-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.1_LVN_html_7fbbc1b3.png" width="254" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Atomizer forms oil droplets.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The mass of the droplets is measured by measuring their falling rate.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">X-ray beam ionises the air.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Oil droplets acquire charge by colliding with gaseous ions on passing through the ionised air.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The falling rate of droplets can be controlled by controlling the voltage across the plate.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Careful measurement of the effects of electric field strength on the motion of droplets leads to conclusion, <i>q</i> = <i>ne</i> [Where, <i>q</i> is the magnitude of electrical charge on the droplets, <i>e</i> is electrical charge, <i>n</i> = 1, 2, 3 …]</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Results</b></div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Charge on an electron = − 1.6022 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−19</sup> C</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Mass of an electron</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="140" name="Object3" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/195/672/1339/1360/18-5-09_LP_Sujata_Chem_1.11.5.2.1.1_LVN_html_m4904cbf4.gif" width="192" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Discovery of Proton</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Electric discharge carried out in modified cathode ray tube led to the discovery of particles carrying positive charge (known as canal rays).</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">These positively charged particles depend upon the nature of gas present in them.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The behaviour of these positively charged particles is opposite to that of the electrons or cathode rays in the presence of an electric or a magnetic field.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The smallest and lightest positive ion is called proton (it was obtained from hydrogen).</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Discovery of Neutron</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Neutrons are electrically neutral.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">They were discovered by Chadwick, by bombarding a thin sheet of beryllium with α-particles.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">The given table lists the properties of these fundamental particles.</div><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><tbody>
<tr><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Name</b></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Symbol</b></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Absolute charge/C</b></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Relative charge</b></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Mass/ kg</b></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Mass/</b><i><b>u</b></i></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Approx mass/u</b></div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">Electron</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">e</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">−1.6022 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−19</sup></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">−1</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">9.10939 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−31</sup></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">0.00054</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">0</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">Proton</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">p</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">+1.6022 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−19</sup></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">+1</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">1.67262 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−27</sup></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">1.00727</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">1</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">Neutron</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">n</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">0</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">0</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">1.67493 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−27</sup></div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">1.00867</div></td><td><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;">1</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-483209861590692835.post-35453183220844274742012-03-25T00:11:00.003-07:002012-03-25T04:54:21.642-07:00(Chemistry Ch-1) 6. Stoichiometric Calculations in Balanced Chemical Equations<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">An example of a balanced chemical equation is given below.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="27" name="Object1" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_638df15c.gif" width="249" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">From the above balanced chemical equation, the following information is obtained:</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">One mole of C<sub style="font-size: 12px;">3</sub>H<sub style="font-size: 12px;">8(g) </sub>reacts with five moles of O<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2(g) </sub>to give three moles of CO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2(g) </sub>and four moles of H<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub>O<sub style="font-size: 12px;">(l)</sub>.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">One molecule of C<sub style="font-size: 12px;">3</sub>H<sub style="font-size: 12px;">8(g)</sub> reacts with five molecules of O<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2(g)</sub> to give three molecules of CO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2(g)</sub> and four molecules of H<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub>O<sub style="font-size: 12px;">(l)</sub>.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">44 g of C<sub style="font-size: 12px;">3</sub>H<sub style="font-size: 12px;">8(g)</sub> reacts with (5 × 16 = 80) g of O<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2(g) </sub>to give (3 × 44 = 132) g of CO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub> and (4 × 18 = 72) g of H<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub>O.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">22.4 L of C<sub style="font-size: 12px;">3</sub>H<sub style="font-size: 12px;">8(g)</sub> reacts with (5 × 22.4) L of O<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2(g) </sub>to give (3 × 22.4) L of O<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub> and (4 × 22.4) L of H<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub>O.</div></li>
</ul><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td valign="top"><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Example</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Nitric acid (HNO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">3</sub>) is commercially manufactured by reacting nitrogen dioxide (NO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub>) with water (H<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub>O). The balanced chemical equation is represented as follows:</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="27" name="Object2" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_18393ecc.gif" width="261" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Calculate the mass of NO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub> required for producing 5 moles of HNO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">3</sub>.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Solution</b><b>:</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">According to the given balanced chemical equation, 3 moles of NO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub> will produce 2 moles of HNO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">3</sub>.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Therefore, 2 moles of HNO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">3</sub> require 3 moles of NO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub>.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Hence, 5 moles of HNO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">3</sub> require <img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="41" name="Object3" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_m10a0f345.gif" width="48" />moles of NO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 7.5 moles of NO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Molar mass of NO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub> = (14 + 2 × 16) g mol<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 46 g mol<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Thus, required mass of NO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub> = (7.5 × 46) g mol<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 345 g mol<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Limiting reagent or limiting reactant:</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Reactant which gets completely consumed when a reaction goes to completion</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">So called because its concentration limits the amount of the product formed</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=483209861590692835&postID=3545318322084427474" name="939" style="color: #f6782b; text-decoration: none;"></a></b></div><br />
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<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"></div><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td valign="top"><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Example</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Lead nitrate reacts with sodium iodide to give lead iodide and sodium nitrate in the following manner:</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="25" name="Object4" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_m25933b33.gif" width="253" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">What amount of sodium nitrate is obtained when 30 g of lead nitrate reacts with 30g of sodium iodide?</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Solution</b><b>:</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Molar mass of <img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="29" name="Object5" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_mccf0ed3.gif" width="244" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 331 g mol<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Molar mass of NaI = (23 + 127) = 150 g mol<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">According to the given equation, 1 mole of Pb(NO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">3</sub>)<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub> reacts with 2 moles of NaI, i.e.,</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">331 g of Pb(NO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">3</sub>)<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub> reacts with 300 g of NaI to give PbI<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub> and NaNO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">3</sub></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Thus, Pb(NO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">3</sub>)<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub> is the limiting reagent.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Therefore, 30 g of Pb (NO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">3</sub>)<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub> <img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="41" name="Object6" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_m76b78d8e.gif" width="85" /> mole</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">According to the equation, 0.09 mole of Pb(NO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">3</sub>)<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub> will give (2 × 0.09) mole of NaNO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">3</sub> = 0.18 mole of NaNO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">3</sub>.</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Reactions in solutions</b><b>:</b></div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Ways for expressing the concentration of a solution −</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Mass per cent or weight per cent (w/w%)</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Mass per cent <img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="41" name="Object7" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_792fd988.gif" width="176" /></div><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dl><dl><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td valign="top"><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Example</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">4.4 g of oxalic acid is dissolved in 200 mL of a solution. What is the mass per cent of oxalic acid in the solution? (Density of the solution = 1.1 g mL<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup>)</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Solution</b><b>:</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Density of the solution = 1.1 g mL<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">So the mass of the solution = (200 mL) × (1.1 g mL<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup>)</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 220 g</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Mass of oxalic acid = 4.4 g</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Therefore, mass per cent of oxalic acid in the solution</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="109" name="Object8" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_41276b0b.gif" width="199" /></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl></dl></dl><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Mole fraction:</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">If a substance ‘A’ dissolves in a substance ‘B’, then mole fraction of A <img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="41" name="Object9" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_m41a2dc6.gif" width="228" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="45" name="Object10" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_32a81aa3.gif" width="67" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Mole fraction of B <img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="41" name="Object11" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_m3eb9ab7d.gif" width="228" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="45" name="Object12" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_m3bfe0e9b.gif" width="67" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><i>n</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">A</sub> − Number of moles of A</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><i>n</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">B</sub> − Number of moles of B</div><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dl><dl><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td valign="top"><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Example</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">A solution is prepared by dissolving 45 g of a substance <b>X</b> (molar mass = 25 g mol<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup>) in 235 g of a substance <b>Y</b> (molar mass = 18 g mol<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup>). Calculate the mole fractions of <b>X</b> and <b>Y</b>.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Solution</b><b>:</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Moles of X, <i>n</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">X</sub> = <img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="41" name="Object13" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_m3c440f7.gif" width="23" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 1.8 mol</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Moles of Y, <i>n</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">Y</sub> = <img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="41" name="Object14" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_7a68cc2b.gif" width="31" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 13.06 mol</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Therefore, mole fraction of X, <i>n</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">X</sub> <img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="41" name="Object15" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_m327b4d3e.gif" width="87" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="61" name="Object16" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_69cb1907.gif" width="55" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">And, mole fraction of Y, <i>n</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">Y</sub> = 1 − <i>n</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">X</sub></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 1 − 0.121</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 0.879</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl></dl></dl><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Molarity:</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Number of moles of a solute in 1 L of a solution</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Molarity (M) =<img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="41" name="Object17" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_m28b7b100.gif" width="184" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Molarity equation:</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><i>M</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">1</sub><i>V</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">1</sub> = <i>M</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub><i>V</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><i>M</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">1</sub> = Molarity of a solution when its volume is <i>V</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">1</sub></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><i>M</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub> = Molarity of the same solution when its volume is <i>V</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub></div><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dl><dl><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td valign="top"><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Examples</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>1.</b> 10g of HCl is dissolved in enough water to form 500 mL of the solution. Calculate the molarity of the solution.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Solution</b><b>:</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Molar mass of HCl = 36.5 g mol<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">So the moles of HCl = <img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="41" name="Object18" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_m177fff12.gif" width="35" />mol</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 0.274 mol</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Volume of the solution = 500 mL = 0.5 L</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Therefore, molarity = <img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="41" name="Object19" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_m43d341aa.gif" width="184" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="41" name="Object20" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_5b54fb2.gif" width="85" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 0.548 M</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>2. </b>Commercially available concentrated HCl contains 38% HCl by mass. What volume of concentrated HCl is required to make 2.5 L of 0.2 M HCl? (Density of the solution = 1.19 g mL<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup>)</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Solution</b><b>:</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">38% HCl by mass means that 38g of HCl is present in 100 g of the solution.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Moles of HCl = <img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="41" name="Object21" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_m2e6f417.gif" width="107" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Volume of the solution<img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="44" name="Object22" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_m37b3c5a1.gif" width="69" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="45" name="Object23" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_650e88a1.gif" width="88" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 84.03 mL</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 0.08403L</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Therefore, molarity of the solution =<img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="45" name="Object24" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_m3f968329.gif" width="71" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 12.38 M</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">According to molarity equation,</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><i>M</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">1</sub><i>V</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">1</sub> = <i>M</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub><i>V</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Here,</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><i>M</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">1</sub> = 12.38 M</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><i>M</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub> = 0.2 M</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><i>V</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub> = 2.5 L</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Now, <i>M</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">1</sub><i>V</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">1</sub> = <i>M</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub><i>V</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub></div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="112" name="Object25" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_m153e537d.gif" width="177" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Hence, required volume of HCl = 0.0404 L</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl></dl></dl><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Molality:</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Number of moles of solute present in 1 kg of solvent</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Molality (m) = <img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="44" name="Object26" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_m3e352e53.gif" width="183" /></div><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dl><dl><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td valign="top"><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Example</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">What is the molality of a solution of glucose in water, which is labelled as 15% (w/w)?</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Solution</b><b>:</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">15% (w/w) solution means that 15 g of glucose is present in 100 g of the solution, i.e., (100 − 15) g = 85 g of water = 0.085 kg of water</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Moles of glucose = <img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="45" name="Object27" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_72bcd90b.gif" width="80" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 0.083 mol</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Therefore, molality of the solution <img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="44" name="Object28" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1338/1352/26-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.6_SJT_LVN_html_m3e8f729e.gif" width="81" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 0.976 m</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl></dl></dl></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-483209861590692835.post-90322911179404647532012-03-25T00:10:00.001-07:002012-03-25T04:54:07.826-07:00(Chemistry Ch-1) 5. Mole Concept and Molar Masses<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<br />
<center style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><b><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" height="500" width="750"><embed src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/194/671/1337/3915/video_1_11_13_194_671_1337_3915-1.swf?25-03-2012" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="750" height="500" base="/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/194/671/1337/3915/"></object></b></center><br />
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">1 mole of any substance can be defined as:</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Amount of a substance that contains as many particles (atoms, molecules or ions) as there are atoms in 12 g of the <sup style="font-size: 12px;">12</sup>C isotope</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Avogadro number or Avogadro constant (N<sub style="font-size: 12px;">A</sub>); equal to 6.022 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">23</sup> particles</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Example − 1 mole of oxygen atoms = 6.022 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">23</sup> atoms</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">1 mole of carbon dioxide molecules = 6.022 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">23</sup> molecules</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">1 mole of sodium chloride = 6.022 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">23</sup> formula units of sodium chloride</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Molar mass of a substance can be defined as:</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Mass of one mole of a substance in grams</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Numerically equal to atomic/molecular/formula mass in u.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Example − Molar mass of CO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub> = 44.011 g mol<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup></div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Molar mass of NaCl = 58.5 g mol<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup></div><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td valign="TOP"><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Example</b><b>s</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>1.</b> What number of moles contains 3.011 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">23</sup> molecules of glucose?</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Solution:</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">1 mole of glucose is equivalent to 6.022 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">23</sup> molecules of glucose.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Hence, 3.011 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">23</sup> molecules of glucose will be present in</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="44" name="Object1" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1337/1350/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.5_SJT_LVN_html_m428d2f95.gif" width="112" />mol = 0.5 mol (of glucose)</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Thus, 0.5 mole of glucose contains 3.011 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">23</sup> molecules of glucose.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>2.</b> What is the mass of a mole of fluorine molecule?</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Solution:</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">1 mole of fluorine molecule contains 6.022 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">23</sup> molecules and weighs 38 g.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Therefore, mass of a fluorine molecule =<img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="45" name="Object2" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1337/1350/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.5_SJT_LVN_html_m1b62977b.gif" width="87" />g</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 6.31 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−23</sup> g</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Percentage Composition</b></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Mass percent of an element = <img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="44" name="Object3" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1337/1350/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.5_SJT_LVN_html_m6b2299eb.gif" width="311" /></div><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><tbody>
<tr><td valign="TOP"><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Example</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">What is the mass percent of oxygen in potassium nitrate? (Atomic mass of K = 39.10 u, atomic mass of N = 14.007 u, atomic mass of O = 16.00 u)</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Solution:</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Atomic mass of K = 39.10 u (Given)</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Atomic mass of N = 14.007 u (Given)</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Atomic mass of O = 16.00 u (Given)</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Therefore, molar mass of potassium nitrate (KNO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">3</sub>)</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 39.10 + 14.007 + 3(16.00)</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 101.107 g</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Therefore, mass percent of oxygen in KNO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">3</sub></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= <img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="45" name="Object4" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1337/1350/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.5_SJT_LVN_html_548b8372.gif" width="229" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="45" name="Object5" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1337/1350/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.5_SJT_LVN_html_393c7983.gif" width="131" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 47.47% (approx)</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Empirical formula and molecular formula:</div></li>
</ul><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP"><td bgcolor="#e6e6e6"><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Empirical formula</b></div></td><td bgcolor="#e6e6e6"><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Molecular formula</b></div></td></tr>
<tr valign="TOP"><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">Represents the simplest whole number ratio of various atoms present in a compound</div></td><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">Represents the exact number of different types of atoms present in a molecule of a compound</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Empirical formula is determined if mass % of various elements are known.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Molecular formula is determined from empirical formula if molar mass is known.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=483209861590692835&postID=9032291117940464753" name="5835" style="color: #f6782b; text-decoration: none;"></a></b></div><br />
<center style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><b><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" height="500" width="750"><embed src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/194/671/1337/5835/video_1_11_13_194_671_1337_5835-2.swf?25-03-2012" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="750" height="500" base="/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/194/671/1337/5835/"></object></b></center><br />
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"></div><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td valign="TOP"><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Example</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">A compound contains 92.26% carbon and 7.74% hydrogen. If the molar mass of the compound is 26.038 g mol<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup>, then what are its empirical and molecular formulae?</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Solution:</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Mass percent of carbon (C) = 92.26% (Given)</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Mass percent of hydrogen (H) = 7.74% (Given)</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Number of moles of carbon present in the compound = <img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="45" name="Object6" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1337/1350/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.5_SJT_LVN_html_m1925a1c.gif" width="55" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 7.68 mol</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Number of moles of hydrogen present in the compound <img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="45" name="Object7" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1337/1350/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.5_SJT_LVN_html_3265b890.gif" width="60" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 7.68 mol</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Thus, in the given compound, carbon and hydrogen are present in the ratio C : H = 7.68 : 7.68</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 1 : 1</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Therefore, the empirical formula of the compound is CH.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Empirical formula mass of CH = (12.011 + 1.008)g</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 13.019 g</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Molar mass of the compound = 26.038 g (Given)</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Therefore, <i>n</i> = <img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="45" name="Object8" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1337/1350/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.5_SJT_LVN_html_4b64d05a.gif" width="165" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">=<img align="ABSMIDDLE" alt="" height="45" name="Object9" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1337/1350/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.5_SJT_LVN_html_74e6788.gif" width="73" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 2</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Hence, the molecular mass of the compound is (CH)<sub style="font-size: 12px;"><i>n</i></sub>, i.e., (CH)<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub> or C<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub>H<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub>.</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl><br />
<center style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td valign="TOP"><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Interconversion among number of moles, mass and number of molecules</b></div></td></tr>
<tr><td valign="TOP"><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 22px;"><img align="BOTTOM" alt="" border="0" height="355" name="Picture 10" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1337/1350/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.5_SJT_LVN_html_m3a8e095f.png" width="338" /></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></center></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com13tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-483209861590692835.post-73861878624346440552012-03-25T00:09:00.002-07:002012-03-25T04:53:48.871-07:00(Chemistry Ch-1) 4. Laws of Chemical Combination<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Law of Conservation of Mass</b><b>:</b></div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Matter can be neither created nor destroyed.</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=483209861590692835" name="938" style="color: #f6782b; text-decoration: none;"></a></b></div><br />
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<center style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><b><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" height="500" width="750"><embed src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/194/671/1336/938/video_1_11_13_194_671_1336_938-1.swf?25-03-2012" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="750" height="500" base="/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/194/671/1336/938/"></object></b></center><br />
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Law of Definite Proportions:</b></div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">A given compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by weight.</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Law of </b><b>Multiple Proportions:</b></div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">If two elements can combine to form more than one compound, then the masses of one element that combines with a fixed mass of the other element are in the ratio of small whole numbers.</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=483209861590692835" name="5837" style="color: #f6782b; text-decoration: none;"></a></b></div><br />
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<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes</b><b>:</b></div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">When gases combine or are produced in a chemical reaction, they do so in a simple ratio by volume, provided all the gases are at the same temperature and pressure.</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=483209861590692835" name="5886" style="color: #f6782b; text-decoration: none;"></a></b></div><br />
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<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Avogadro Law</b><b>:</b></div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure should contain equal number of molecules.</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=483209861590692835" name="5836" style="color: #f6782b; text-decoration: none;"></a></b></div><br />
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<center style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><b><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" height="500" width="750"><embed src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/194/671/1336/5836/video_1_11_13_194_671_1336_5836-4.swf?25-03-2012" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="750" height="500" base="/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/194/671/1336/5836/"></object></b></center><br />
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Dalton’s Atomic Theory</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Postulates</b><b>:</b></div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">All matter is made of very tiny indivisible particles called atoms.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">All the atoms of a given element are identical in mass and chemical properties whereas those of different elements have different masses and chemical properties.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Atoms of different elements combine in a fixed whole number ratio to form compounds.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Chemical reactions involve reorganisation of atoms. Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The laws of chemical combination could be explained by Dalton’s atomic theory.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=483209861590692835" name="5871" style="color: #f6782b; text-decoration: none;"></a></b></div><br />
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<center style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><b><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" height="500" width="750"><embed src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/194/671/1336/5871/video_1_11_13_194_671_1336_5871-6.swf?25-03-2012" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="750" height="500" base="/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/194/671/1336/5871/"></object></b></center><br />
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Atomic and Molecular Masses</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Atomic mass</b><b>:</b></div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The mass of an atom</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">One atomic mass unit (1 amu) = Mass equal to one-twelfth of the mass of one carbon-12 atom</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">1 amu = 1.66056 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−24</sup> g</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Nowadays, ‘u’ (unified mass) has replaced ‘amu’.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Average atomic mass = ∑(Mass of isotope × Relative abundance)</div></li>
</ul><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dl><dl><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td valign="top"><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Example</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">The relative abundance of two isotopes of copper, having atomic masses 62.93 u and 64.94 u, are 69.09% and 30.91% respectively. Calculate the average atomic mass of copper.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Solution:</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Average atomic mass of copper = <img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="45" name="Object1" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1336/1349/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.4_SJT_LVN_html_2645052e.gif" width="221" /></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 63.55 u</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl></dl></dl><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Molecular Mass</b><b>:</b></div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Sum of the atomic masses of all the elements present in a molecule</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Example − Molecular mass of CO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub> = 1 × Atomic mass of carbon + 2 × Atomic mass of oxygen</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">= (1 × 12.011 u) + (2 × 16.00 u)</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">= 12.011 u + 32.00 u</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">= 44.011 u</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Formula Mass</b><b>:</b></div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Sum of the masses of all the atoms present in a formula unit of a compound</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Used for compounds whose constituent particles are ions</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Example − Formula mass of sodium chloride (NaCl)</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">= Atomic mass of sodium + Atomic mass of chlorine</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">= 23.0 u + 35.5 u</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">= 58.5 u</div><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><tbody>
<tr><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Know your scientist</b><b>s</b></div></td></tr>
<tr><td valign="top"><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743 − 1794): </b>A French chemist and biologist postulated the “law of conservation of mass”.He is known as “the father of modern chemistry”.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Joseph Proust (1754 − 1856): </b>A French Chemist immensely contributed to the chemical sciences by stating “the law of definite proportions”.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>John Dalton</b><b> (1764 − 1844): </b>This English chemist, meteorologist and physicist is known for his pioneering work towards the development of the modern atomic theory. He postulated “the law of multiple proportions”.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Gay Lussac (1778 − 1850): </b>A French chemist mathematically deduced volume relations and generalised his deductions as “the law of combining volumes”.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Amedeo Avogadro (1776 − 1856): </b>An Italian scientist is known worldwide for the term “mole”. He defined the relationship between masses of same volume of different gases and their molecular weights. His law came to be known as Avogadro’s law.</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com10tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-483209861590692835.post-51427467177325405392012-03-25T00:06:00.001-07:002012-03-25T04:53:35.563-07:00(Chemistry Ch-1) 3. Uncertainty in Measurement<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Scientific Notation</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Exponential notation in which a number can be represented in the form N × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;"><i>n</i></sup>, where <i>n</i> = positive; N varies between 1 and 10.</div></li>
</ul><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td height="165"><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Example</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Express the following in the scientific notation.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">(i) 0.00502</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">(ii) 32010.07</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Solution</b><b>:</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">(i) 5.02 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−3</sup></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">(ii) 3.201007 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">4</sup></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Multiplication and division</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">(1.7 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−7</sup>) × (5.9 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">2</sup>) = (1.7 × 5.9) (10 <sup style="font-size: 12px;">− 7 + 2</sup>)</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">= (1.7 × 5.9) × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−5</sup></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">= 10.03 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−5</sup></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">= 1.003 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−4</sup></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Addition and subtraction</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">The numbers are written by keeping the exponent same.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Example:</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">7.25 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−3</sup> + 4.12 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−5</sup></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">= 7.25 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−3</sup> + 0.0412 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−3</sup></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">= (7.25 + 0.0412) × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−3</sup></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">= 7.2912 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−3</sup></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Example:</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">2.87 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">7</sup> − 5.1 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">6</sup></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">= 2.87 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">7</sup> − 0.51 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">7</sup></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">= (2.87 − 0.51) × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">7</sup></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">= 2.36 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">7</sup></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Significant Figures</b></div><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><tbody>
<tr><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Precision</b></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Accuracy</b></div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">Closeness of various measurements for the same quantity</div></td><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">Argument of a particular value to the true value of the result</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">Expressed as the difference between a measured value and the arithmetic mean value for a series of measurements</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">i.e., Precision = Individual value − Arithmetic mean value</div></td><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">Expressed as the difference between the experimental value or the mean value of a set of measurements and the true value</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">i.e., Accuracy = Mean value − True value</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=483209861590692835&postID=5142746717732540539" name="5856" style="color: #f6782b; text-decoration: none;"></a></b></div><br />
<center style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><b><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" height="400" width="500"><embed src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/194/671/1335/5856/video_1_11_13_194_671_1335_5856-3.swf?25-03-2012" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="500" height="400" base="/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/194/671/1335/5856/"></object></b></center><b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><br />
</b><br />
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Comprise meaningful digits which are known with certainty</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Indicated by writing the certain digits and the last uncertain digit</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Example, in a result 45.8 cm, 45 is certain and 8 is uncertain. The uncertainty would be ± 1 in the last digit.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">If not stated, then the uncertainty in the last digit is understood as ± 1.</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Rules to determine the number of significant figures:</div><ul><li>All non-zero digits are significant. Example: 145 mL has three significant figures.</li>
<li>Zeroes preceding the first non-zero digit are not significant. Example: 0.04281 has four significant figures.</li>
<li>Zeroes between two non-zero digits are significant. Example: 23.007 has five significant figures.</li>
<li>Zeroes at the end or right of a number are significant when they are on the right side of the decimal point. Example: 0.8300 has four significant figures.</li>
<li>Counting numbers of objects have infinite significant figures as these are exact numbers and can be represented by writing infinite number of zeros after placing a decimal. Example: 25 books can be represented as 25 = 25.00000000</li>
</ul></li>
</ul><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td valign="top"><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Example</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">How many significant figures are present in 0.08700200?</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Solution</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">There are seven significant figures.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><img align="bottom" alt="" border="0" height="50" name="graphics1" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1335/1347/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.3_SJT_SS_html_704073ac.png" width="79" /></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Addition and subtraction of significant figures:</div><ul><li>The result must not have more digits to the right of the decimal point than either of the original numbers.</li>
<li>Example:</li>
</ul></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="93" name="Object1" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1335/1347/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.3_SJT_SS_html_m1ffdbec.gif" width="63" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Since 41.3 has only one digit to the right of the decimal point, the result will be 53.8.</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Multiplication and division of significant figures.</div><ul><li>The result must not have more significant figures than that of the original numbers with the few significant figures.</li>
<li>Example: 1.1 × 2.134 = 2.3474</li>
</ul></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Since 1.1 has two significant figures, the result will be 2.3.</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Rules for rounding off numbers:</div><ul><li>If greater than 5, then increased by 1</li>
<li>If less than 5, then not changed</li>
<li>If equal to 5, then increased by 1 (in case of odd number) and not changed (in case of even number)</li>
</ul></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=483209861590692835&postID=5142746717732540539" name="5873" style="color: #f6782b; text-decoration: none;"></a></b></div><br />
<center style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><b><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" height="400" width="500"><embed src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/194/671/1335/5873/video_1_11_13_194_671_1335_5873-4.swf?25-03-2012" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="500" height="400" base="/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/194/671/1335/5873/"></object></b></center><br />
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Dimensional Analysis</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Method used to convert units from one system to other − Factor label method or unit factor method or dimensional analysis</div></li>
</ul><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td valign="top"><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Example</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Calculate the volume of 3.5 L water in m<sup style="font-size: 12px;">3</sup>.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Solution</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">We know that</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">1 L = 1000 cm<sup style="font-size: 12px;">3</sup></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= (10 cm)<sup style="font-size: 12px;">3</sup></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Since 100 cm = 1 m,</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">10 cm = 0.1 m</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Now, 1 L = (10 cm)<sup style="font-size: 12px;">3</sup></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= (0.1 m)<sup style="font-size: 12px;">3</sup></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= (1 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup> m)<sup style="font-size: 12px;">3</sup></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 1 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−3</sup> m<sup style="font-size: 12px;">3</sup></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Therefore, 3.5 L = 3.5 × 1 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">− 3</sup> m<sup style="font-size: 12px;">3</sup></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 3.5 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−3</sup> m<sup style="font-size: 12px;">3</sup></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><br />
</div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-483209861590692835.post-83812873503452023572012-03-25T00:05:00.001-07:002012-03-25T04:53:22.072-07:00(Chemistry Ch-1) 2. Properties of Matter<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<div align="center" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="bottom" alt="" border="0" height="136" name="Picture 7" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1334/1345/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.2_SJT_SS_html_m21443684.png" width="456" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Physical properties</b></div><ul><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Properties which can be measured or observed without changing the identity or composition of the substance</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Example − Colour, odour, melting point, boiling point, density, etc.</div></li>
</ul></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Chemical Properties</b></div><ul><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Properties in which chemical change in the substance takes place</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Examples − Characteristic reactions of different substances such as acidity, basicity, combustibility, reactions with other elements and compounds</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Quantitative properties can be of the following types:</div></li>
</ul></li>
</ul><div align="center" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="bottom" alt="" border="0" height="340" name="Picture 8" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1334/1345/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.2_SJT_SS_html_3a3b0456.png" width="313" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b>Measurement of properties</b></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Systems of Measurement</b></div><ul><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">English system</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Metric system</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">International system of units (SI)</div></li>
</ul></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>The International System of Units (SI)</b></div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Seven base units</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px; margin-left: 80px;"></div><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dl><dl><dd></dd></dl></dl></dl><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px; margin-left: 40px;"></div><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dl><dl><dd></dd></dl></dl></dl><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"></div><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dl><dl><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Base Physical Quantity</b></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Symbol for Quantity</b></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Name of SI Unit</b></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Symbol for SI Unit</b></div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">Length</div><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">Mass</div><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">Time</div><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">Electric current</div><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">Temperature</div><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">Amount of substance</div><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">Luminous intensity</div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><i>l</i></div><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><i>m</i></div><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><i>t</i></div><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><i>I</i></div><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><i>T</i></div><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><i>n</i></div><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><i>l</i><sub style="font-size: 12px;"><i>v</i></sub></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">metre</div><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">kilogram</div><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">second</div><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">ampere</div><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">kelvin</div><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">mole</div><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">candela</div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">m</div><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">kg</div><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">s</div><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">A</div><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">K</div><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">mol</div><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">cd</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl></dl></dl><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Definitions of SI base units</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><br />
</div></li>
</ul><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dl><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr valign="top"><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">Unit of length</div></td><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">metre</div></td><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">The <i>metre </i>is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">1/299 792 458 of a second.</div></td></tr>
<tr valign="top"><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">Unit of mass</div></td><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">kilogram</div></td><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">The <i>kilogram </i>is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram.</div></td></tr>
<tr valign="top"><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">Unit of time</div></td><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">second</div></td><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">The <i>second </i>is the duration of</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom.</div></td></tr>
<tr valign="top"><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">Unit of electric current</div></td><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">ampere</div></td><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">The <i>ampere </i>is that constant current, which if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length of negligible circular cross-section and placed 1 metre apart in vacuum, would produce a force equal to 2 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−7 </sup>Newton per metre of length between these conductors.</div></td></tr>
<tr valign="top"><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">Unit of thermodynamic temperature</div></td><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">kelvin</div></td><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">The <i>kelvin</i>, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.</div></td></tr>
<tr valign="top"><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">Unit of amount of substance</div></td><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">mole</div></td><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">1. The <i>mole </i>is the amount of substance of a system, which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12; its symbol is “mol.”</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">2. When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified and these may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specified groups of such particles.</div></td></tr>
<tr valign="top"><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">Unit of luminous intensity</div></td><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">candela</div></td><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">The <i>candela </i>is the luminous intensity (in a given direction) of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">12</sup> hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian.</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl></dl><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Prefixes used to indicate the multiples or submultiples of a unit.</div></li>
</ul><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dl><dl><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr valign="top"><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Multiple</b></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Prefix</b></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Symbol</b></div></td></tr>
<tr valign="top"><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−24</sup></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">yocto</div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">y</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−21</sup></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">zepto</div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">z</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−18</sup></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">atto</div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">a</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−15</sup></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">femto</div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">f</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−12</sup></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">pico</div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">p</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−9</sup></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">nano</div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">n</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−6</sup></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">micro</div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">μ</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−3</sup></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">milli</div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">m</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−2</sup></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">centi</div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">c</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−1</sup></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">deci</div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">d</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">10</div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">deca</div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">da</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">2</sup></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">hecto</div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">h</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">3</sup></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">kilo</div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">k</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">6</sup></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">mega</div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">M</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">9</sup></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">giga</div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">G</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">12</sup></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">tera</div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">T</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">15</sup></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">peta</div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">P</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">18</sup></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">exa</div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">E</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">21</sup></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">zeta</div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">Z</div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">24</sup></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">yotta</div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;">Y</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl></dl></dl><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Mass and Weight</b></div></li>
</ul><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr valign="top"><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Mass</b></div></td><td><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Weight</b></div></td></tr>
<tr valign="top"><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">Amount of matter present in an object</div></td><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">Force exerted on an object by gravity</div></td></tr>
<tr valign="top"><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">Constant, irrespective of the place</div></td><td><div style="line-height: 22px;">Vary from place to place due to change in gravity</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Mass can be determined accurately by using an analytical balance.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="bottom" alt="" border="0" height="254" name="Picture 9" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1334/1345/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.2_SJT_SS_html_4e1b1184.png" width="257" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">SI unit of mass = Kilogram (kg)</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">1 kg = 1000 g = 10<sup style="font-size: 12px;">6</sup> mg</div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Volume</b></div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Amount of space occupied by an object</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Has the units of (length)<sup style="font-size: 12px;">3</sup></div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">SI unit = m<sup style="font-size: 12px;">3</sup></div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Often used units = dm<sup style="font-size: 12px;">3</sup>, L</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">1 dm<sup style="font-size: 12px;">3</sup> = 1000 cm<sup style="font-size: 12px;">3</sup></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">1 L = 1000 mL</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Litre is equal in size to dm<sup style="font-size: 12px;">3</sup>.</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">Millilitre is equal in size to cm<sup style="font-size: 12px;">3</sup>.</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Measuring devices − Burette, pipette, graduated cylinder, volumetric flask</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="bottom" alt="" border="0" height="370" name="Picture 8" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1334/1345/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.2_SJT_SS_html_m7337528f.png" width="359" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Density</b></div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Amount of mass per unit volume</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">i.e., Density <img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="45" name="Object1" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1334/1345/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.2_SJT_SS_html_68ef780.gif" width="80" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">SI unit of density =<img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="45" name="Object2" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1334/1345/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.2_SJT_SS_html_7e58821.gif" width="124" /></div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="41" name="Object3" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1334/1345/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.2_SJT_SS_html_m49d27ea.gif" width="45" /> or kg m<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−3</sup></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Often used unit = g cm<sup style="font-size: 12px;">−3</sup></div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Temperature</b></div></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Three scales − degree Celsius (°C)</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">degree Fahrenheit (°F)</div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">kelvin (K)</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">SI unit = Kelvin (K)</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Thermometers using different temperature scales</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="bottom" alt="" border="0" height="211" name="Picture 6" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1334/1345/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.2_SJT_SS_html_533b4503.png" width="551" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Relation between °F and °C scale</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">°F =<img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="41" name="Object4" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1334/1345/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.2_SJT_SS_html_m3881122f.gif" width="15" />(°C) + 32</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Relation between K and °C scale</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;">K = °C + 273.15</div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Negative values of temperature are possible in °C scale, but not in °F and K scale.</div></li>
</ul><dl style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><dl><dl><dd><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td valign="top"><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Example</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">The boiling point of water at sea level is 212 °F. What is its equivalent in Kelvin scale?</div><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Solution:</b></div><div style="line-height: 22px;">To convert temperature from Fahrenheit scale into Kelvin scale, the following equations are used.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">°F =<img align="absMiddle" alt="" height="41" name="Object5" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1334/1345/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.2_SJT_SS_html_m3881122f.gif" width="15" />(°C) + 32</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">⇒ °C = (°F − 32)/1.8</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">K = °C + 273.15</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Converting °F into °C,</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">°C = (212 − 32)/1.8</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 100</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Therefore, the boiling point of water is 100°C converting °C into K.</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">K = °C + 273.15</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 100 + 273.15</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">= 373.15</div><div style="line-height: 22px;">Hence, 212°F is equivalent to 373.15 K.</div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl></dl></dl><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><b><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=483209861590692835&postID=8381287350345202357" name="5834" style="color: #f6782b; text-decoration: none;"></a></b></div><br />
<center style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><b><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" height="500" width="750"><embed src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/194/671/1334/5834/video_1_11_13_194_671_1334_5834-1.swf?25-03-2012" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="750" height="500" base="/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/194/671/1334/5834/"></object></b></center></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-483209861590692835.post-67142862702361907192012-03-25T00:00:00.003-07:002012-03-25T04:52:52.923-07:00(Chemistry Ch-1) 1. Nature of Matter<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<div align="center" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="bottom" alt="" border="0" height="347" name="graphics1" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1333/1343/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.1_SJT_SS_html_m51c3773a.png" width="394" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Three physical states of matter</b></div></li>
</ul><div align="center" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="bottom" alt="" border="0" height="194" name="graphics2" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1333/1343/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.1_SJT_SS_html_7712e8da.png" width="427" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Characteristic</b><b>s of solid</b></div><ul><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Definite volume</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Definite shape</div></li>
</ul></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Characteristics of liquid</b></div><ul><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Definite volume</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Indefinite shape</div></li>
</ul></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Characteristics of gas</b></div><ul><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Indefinite volume</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Indefinite shape</div></li>
</ul></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Arrangement of particles in the three states</div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="bottom" alt="" border="0" height="169" name="graphics3" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1333/1343/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.1_SJT_SS_html_m46de3844.png" width="375" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Inter</b><b>-conversion between the three states</b></div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="bottom" alt="" border="0" height="150" name="graphics4" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1333/1343/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.1_SJT_SS_html_m2a0cac67.png" width="545" /></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=483209861590692835&postID=6714286270236190719" name="1106" style="color: #f6782b; text-decoration: none;"></a></span></div><br />
<center style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" height="400" width="500"><embed src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/194/671/1333/1106/video_1_11_13_194_671_1333_1106-1.swf?25-03-2012" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="500" height="400" base="/img/lp_videos/1/11/13/194/671/1333/1106/"></object></center><br />
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Classification of matter in macroscopic level</b></div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><img align="bottom" alt="" border="0" height="235" name="graphics5" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1333/1343/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.1_SJT_SS_html_m5c6988ed.png" width="571" /></div><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Mixtures</b></div><ul><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Components are present in any ratio.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Homogeneous mixture − Uniform composition throughout the mixture.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Heterogeneous mixture − Non-uniform composition throughout the mixture.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Components can be separated by physical methods such as hand picking, filtration, crystallization, distillation, etc.</div></li>
</ul></li>
</ul><ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><li><div style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Pure substances</b></div><ul><li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Fixed composition</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Constituents cannot be separated by simple physical methods.</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Elements contain only one type of particles − atoms (example Na, K, Cu, C, Ag) or molecules [Example: H<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub>, N<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub>, O<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub>, F<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub>]</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Compounds are formed by the combination of two or more atoms of different elements. [Example: water (H<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub>O), carbon dioxide (CO<sub style="font-size: 12px;">2</sub>)]</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px;">Constituents of compounds cannot be separated by physical methods; they can be separated by chemical methods only.</div></li>
</ul></li>
</ul><br />
<center style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px;"><table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0" rules="groups"><tbody>
<tr><td colspan="2" valign="top"><div align="center" style="line-height: 22px;"><b>Add to your knowledge</b></div></td></tr>
</tbody><tbody>
<tr><td colspan="2" valign="top"><div style="line-height: 22px; text-align: left;">Apart from solid, liquid and gas there are two other states of matter. These are:</div><ul><li><div style="line-height: 22px; text-align: left;">Plasma</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px; text-align: left;">Bose-Einstein Condensate</div></li>
</ul></td></tr>
<tr><td valign="top"><div style="line-height: 22px; text-align: left;"><b>Plasma</b></div><ul><li><div style="line-height: 22px; text-align: left;">State consisting of super-energetic and super-excited particles</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px; text-align: left;">Particles are in ionised conditions</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px; text-align: left;">Example: Helium gas present inside a fluorescent tube ionises when electric charge is applied</div></li>
</ul></td><td><div style="line-height: 22px; text-align: left;"><img align="bottom" alt="" border="0" height="190" name="graphics6" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1333/1343/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.1_SJT_SS_html_m4d5542a6.png" width="187" /></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" valign="top"><div style="line-height: 22px; text-align: left;"><b>Bose-Einstein Condensate</b></div><ul><li><div style="line-height: 22px; text-align: left;">Consists of super-unenergetic and super-cold particles</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px; text-align: left;">Formed when a gas of extremely lower density is cooled to extremely low pressure</div></li>
<li><div style="line-height: 22px; text-align: left;">Can be created with few elements, such as rubidium</div></li>
</ul><div style="line-height: 22px; text-align: left;"><img align="bottom" alt="" border="0" height="143" name="graphics7" src="http://cbse.meritnation.com/img/lp/1/11/5/194/671/1333/1343/25-5-09_LP_Utpal_Chem_1.11.5.1.1.1_SJT_SS_html_m2af7285f.png" width="277" /></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></center><br />
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22px;"><br />
</div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com3